papacy

/pay"peuh see/, n., pl. papacies. Rom. Cath. Ch.

1. the office, dignity, or jurisdiction of the pope.

2. the system of ecclesiastical government in which the pope is recognized as the supreme head.

3. the period during which a certain pope is in office.

4. the succession or line of the popes.

[1350-1400; ME papacie < ML papatia. See POPE, -ACY]

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System of central government of the Roman Catholic church.

Bishops led the early church, the bishop of Rome being accorded special respect by the end of the 1st century AD in part because of the belief that St. Peter was the first bishop of that city. St. Cyprian challenged that position of honour in the 3rd century, and in the 4th–5th century the power of the see of Constantinople rose to challenge that of Rome; the rivalry would culminate in the Schism of 1054 between the Eastern and Western churches. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the papacy found protection under the wing of Charlemagne and his successors; in the 9th–10th century the German emperors controlled it. In 1059 Pope Nicholas II responded by vesting the right to name a new pope exclusively with the College of Cardinals. To establish the papacy's supremacy in Christian society, Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV of Germany for disobedience to papal commands and decreed that civil rulers could not invest churchmen with temporal power (see Investiture Controversy). In the next centuries, the papacy developed into one of the most important and influential institutions in Europe, and Urban II, Innocent III, and Gregory IX were among the most significant popes of the period. The worldliness and corruption of the papal court that emerged at the same time and the "Babylonian Captivity" of the papacy at Avignon (see Avignon papacy) led to the Western Schism and eventually to the Reformation. The Council of Trent inaugurated the Counter-Reformation. In the 19th century the papacy lost its remaining temporal powers when the Papal States were incorporated into the new Kingdom of Italy. It maintained a conservative religious position, proclaiming infallibility in doctrinal matters and espousing the idea that the pope is the absolute ruler of the church. The Second Vatican Council gave the bishops, clergy, and laity more voice. See also Roman Catholicism.

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▪ Roman Catholicism

Introduction

 the office and jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome, the pope (Latin: papa, from Greek pappas, “father”), who presides over the central government of the Roman Catholic church, the largest of the three major branches of Christianity. The term pope was originally applied to all the bishops in the West and also used to describe the patriarch of Alexandria, who still retains the title. In 1073, however, Pope Gregory VII (Gregory VII, Saint) restricted its use to the bishop of Rome, confirming a practice that had existed since the 9th century. According to the Annuario Pontificio, the papal annual, there have been more than 260 popes since St. Peter (Peter the Apostle, Saint), traditionally considered the first pope. Among these, 78 have been proclaimed saints, as have some antipopes (rival claimants to the papal throne who were appointed or elected in opposition to the legitimate pope). Most holders of the office have been either Roman or Italian, with a sprinkling of other Europeans, including one Pole. All have been male, though the legend of a female Pope Joan (Joan, Pope) appeared in the 13th century. During the course of the 2,000 years in which the papal system and the practice of electing popes in the conclave have evolved, the papacy has played a crucial role in both Western and world history. The history of the papacy can be divided into five major periods: the early papacy, from Peter through Pelagius II (until 590); the medieval papacy, from Gregory I through Boniface VIII (590–1303); the Renaissance and Reformation papacy, from Benedict XI through Pius IV (1303–1565); the early modern papacy, from Pius V through Clement XIV (1566–1774); and the modern papacy, from Pius VI (1775– ).

The early papacy

      Apart from the allusion to Rome in the First Letter of Peter, there is no historical evidence that St. Peter was Rome's first bishop or that he was martyred in Rome (according to tradition, he was crucified upside down) during a persecution of the Christians in the mid-60s AD. By the end of the 1st century, however, his presence in the imperial capital was recognized by Christian leaders, and the city was accorded a place of honour, perhaps because of its claim to the graves of both Saints Peter and Paul (Paul, the Apostle, Saint). In 1939 what were believed to be Peter's bones were found under the altar of the basilica dedicated to him, and in 1965 Pope Paul VI (1963–78) confirmed them as such. Rome's primacy was also fostered by its many martyrs, its defense of orthodoxy, and its status as the capital of the Roman Empire. By the end of the 2nd century, Rome's stature was further bolstered by the Petrine theory, which claimed that Jesus Christ had designated Peter to be his representative on earth and the leader of the church and that this ministry was passed on to Peter's successors as bishops of Rome. Peter received this authority, according to the theory, when Jesus referred to him as the rock of the church and said to him, “I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven” (Matthew 16:18–19). The Roman position of honour was challenged in the middle of the 3rd century when Pope Stephen I (Stephen I, Saint) (254–257) and St. Cyprian (Cyprian, Saint), bishop of Carthage, clashed over Stephen's claim to doctrinal authority over the universal church. Nonetheless, in the critical period between Popes Damasus I (Damasus I Saint) (366–384) and Leo I (Leo I, Saint) (440–461), nine popes made a strong case for Rome's supremacy, despite a growing challenge from the see of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Empire.

      Leo, one of only two popes accorded the appellation “the Great,” played a pivotal role in the early history of the papacy. Assuming the title pontifex maximus, or chief priest, he made an important distinction between the person of the pope and his office, maintaining that the office assumed the full power bestowed on Peter. Although the Council of Chalcedon (Chalcedon, Council of)—called and largely directed by the Eastern emperor Marcian in 451—accorded the patriarch of Constantinople the same primacy in the East that the bishop of Rome held in the West, it acknowledged that Leo I spoke with the voice of Peter on matters of dogma, thus encouraging papal primacy. The link between Peter and the office of the bishop of Rome was stressed by Pope Gelasius I (Gelasius I, Saint) (492–496), who was the first pope to be referred to as the “vicar of Christ.” In his “theory of the two swords,” Gelasius articulated a dualistic power structure, insisting that the pope embodied spiritual power while the emperor embodied temporal power. This position, which was supported by Pope Pelagius I (556–561), became an important part of medieval ecclesiology and political theory.

The medieval papacy

      Although much about the early popes remains shrouded in darkness, scholars agree that the bishops of Rome were selected in the same manner as other bishops—that is, elected by the clergy and people of the area (though there is some evidence that some of the early bishops attempted to appoint their successors). Elections were not always peaceful, however, and rival candidates and factions often prompted imperial intervention; eventually the emperors presided over elections. After the collapse of the Western Empire in 476, the involvement of the Eastern emperor in papal affairs was gradually replaced by that of Germanic rulers and leading Roman families. As political instability plagued the old Western Empire in the early Middle Ages, popes were often forced to make concessions to temporal authorities in exchange for protection. After the demise of effective Byzantine control of Italy in the 8th century, the papacy appealed to the new Germanic rulers for support, serving as a symbol of imperial glory for them.

 Pope Gregory I (Gregory I, Saint) (590–604), the first of the medieval popes and the second pope deemed “great,” faced numerous challenges during his reign, including plague, famine, and threats from the Byzantines and the Lombards (Lombard) (a Germanic people who invaded Italy in the 6th century). Although he believed that he was part of a Christian commonwealth headed by the Byzantine emperor, Gregory turned the papacy's attention to the Germanic peoples who succeeded the Romans as rulers of the Western Empire. In this fashion he opened up the West to the papacy. Among the many important accomplishments of Gregory's reign were his efforts to stop the Lombard advance and to convert the invaders from Arian (Arianism) Christianity to Catholic Christianity; his reorganization of the vast estates of the papacy; his contribution to the development of medieval spirituality; his numerous writings, such as the Moralia in Job, a moral commentary on The Book of Job (Job, The Book of); and his evangelistic mission to England. He also upheld Leo I's thesis that, because the papacy inherited the fullness of Peter's power, there could be no appeal of a ruling by the pope.

      Despite Gregory's successful pontificate, the papacy's situation remained uncertain as Byzantine (Byzantine Empire) power in Italy receded and the Lombards continued to endanger Rome's security. The situation worsened in the 8th century after a new emperor, Leo III, restored sagging Byzantine fortunes by turning back an Arab assault from the east. Leo reorganized the empire and imposed new tax burdens on his Italian subjects. He also intervened in doctrinal matters by pronouncing, without papal approval, a policy of iconoclasm (Iconoclastic Controversy). The new imperial fiscal and religious policies and limited imperial support against the Lombards drove the papacy to find a new protector. In 739 Pope Gregory III (Gregory III, Saint) (731–741) sent an unsuccessful appeal for aid to the Frankish mayor of the palace (the effective political power in the kingdom), Charles Martel. When the Lombards again threatened Rome, Pope Stephen II (or III (Stephen II (or III)); 752–757) fled to the Frankish kingdom and appealed to Pippin III, who in 751 had become the first Carolingian (Carolingian dynasty) king of the Franks. In 754 Stephen formally crowned Pippin, and the king marched south with his army in that year and again in 756 to restore papal authority in central Italy. The king also issued the Donation of Pippin (756) to establish the Papal States, which endured until 1870. These events probably also inspired the compilation of the Donation of Constantine (later proved to be a forgery), which asserted that the first Christian emperor, Constantine (Constantine I), granted control of the Western Empire to Pope Sylvester I (Sylvester I, Saint), who had baptized the emperor and cured him of leprosy. It was later cited in support of papal claims of sovereignty in western Europe.

      By linking the fate of Roman primacy to the support of Pippin and the Carolingian dynasty, Stephen and his successors gained a powerful protector. Indeed, a council regulating papal elections in 769 decreed that news of the pope's election was to be transmitted to the Frankish court and no longer to Constantinople. The Frankish-papal alliance was reinforced when Pope Leo III (Leo III, Saint) (795–816), following a period of turmoil in Rome that was ended by Carolingian intervention, crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans on Christmas Day, 800. Although the popes gained a measure of security from this relationship, they lost an equal measure of independence, because the Carolingians followed in the footsteps of their Byzantine and Roman predecessors by asserting considerable control over the Frankish church and the papacy itself. On the other hand, the pope exercised influence in Carolingian affairs by maintaining the right to crown emperors and by sometimes directly intervening in political disputes.

      As Carolingian power waned in the late 9th and the 10th century, the papacy once again found itself at the disposal of powerful local nobles, including the Crescentii Family. Competition for control of the papal throne and its extensive network of patronage weakened the institution. Unsettled conditions in Rome drew the attention of Otto I, who revived Charlemagne's empire in 962 and required papal stability to legitimate his rule. In keeping with that goal, Otto deposed Pope John XII (955–964) for moral turpitude. During the late 10th and the 11th century, problems in the papal court and political conditions in Italy reinforced the close ties between the papacy and the German emperors, especially in the case of Pope Sylvester II (999–1003) and Otto III. Despite this alliance, the emperor was often absent from Rome, and local powers reasserted themselves. At times, the papacy suffered from weakness and corruption. But even in the darkest times of the 10th and 11th centuries, Rome remained the focus of devotion and pilgrimage as the city of Peter and of the martyrs and saints.

      The 11th century was a time of revolutionary change in European society. In 1049 Pope Leo IX (Leo IX, Saint) (1049–54), joining a broad reform initiative that began in the early 10th century, introduced moral and institutional reforms at the Council of Reims, thus initiating the Gregorian Reform movement (named after its most important leader, Pope Gregory VII (Gregory VII, Saint) [1073–85]). Reformers sought to restore the liberty and independence of the church and to firmly distinguish the clergy from all other orders in society. Emphasizing the clergy's unique status and its awesome responsibility for the tending of individual souls, they attempted to put an end to the practices of simony (the buying or selling of spiritual offices) and clerical marriage. One important measure implemented by Pope Nicholas II (1059–61) was the election decree of 1059, which organized the cardinals into a papal advisory body and laid the foundation for the creation of the Sacred College of Cardinals (cardinal). The new body was vested with the right to name new popes, thus encouraging the independence of papal elections and restricting imperial interference. Further reforms emphasized the primacy of Rome and the subordination of all clergy and laity to the pope. Such assertions of papal primacy, however, worsened tensions between Rome and Constantinople and eventually brought about the Schism of 1054 (1054, Schism of) between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.

      Another significant development brought about by the papal reform begun in 1049 was the Investiture Controversy. This struggle between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV of Germany erupted when Henry claimed the long-standing royal right to invest an ecclesiastical office holder with the symbols of power, thereby effectively maintaining control of the selection and direction of bishops and local clergy. The proper order of Christendom was at stake in the controversy. The papal position was elucidated in Gregory's Dictatus Papae (1075), which emphasized the pope's place as the highest authority in the church. Although Gregory was driven from Rome and died in exile, his ideals eventually prevailed, as claims of sacral kingship and royal intervention in church affairs were seriously curtailed. Henry died under the ban of excommunication, and one of Gregory's successors, Urban II (1088–99), restored Rome's prestige when he launched the First Crusade (Crusades) in 1095.

      The 12th century was a period of growth and transformation during which the impetus of Gregorian Reform came to a close and the papacy adjusted to the new realities brought about by the events of the previous century. Traditionally the spiritual centre of the church, the papacy evolved into a great administrative and bureaucratic institution. Indeed, the papal court became, in some ways, the highest court of appeals, exercising jurisdiction in a broad range of legal matters and creating legal machinery of great sophistication. Whereas all roads once led to Rome for spiritual consolation, now they also led there for the adjudication of legal disputes; not coincidentally, few popes in subsequent generations were listed among the ranks of the saints.

      The papacy also adjusted to changing social, religious, and political conditions, some of which were of its own making. The new electoral procedures instituted by the Gregorians only partially resolved questions relating to papal succession, and, as a result, the papacy suffered two schisms in the 12th century, the Anacletan and the Alexandrine. The latter was caused by renewed tensions between the papacy and the emperor, Frederick I Barbarossa (Frederick I), who eventually yielded to the legitimate pope, Alexander III (1159–81). The Alexandrine schism led to the decision of the third Lateran Council (1179) to require a two-thirds majority vote of the cardinals to elect a pope. The papacy also faced challenges posed by the efforts of Italian cities to secure independence from imperial or episcopal control and by the growth of heresies, especially those of the Waldenses and the Albigenses.

       Innocent III (1198–1216) responded with greater fervour to the challenges faced by the church. One of the youngest popes to ascend the throne, Innocent, a theologian and lawyer, reinvigorated the institution; as the vicar of Christ, he declared that the pope stood between God and humankind. He restored effective government over the Papal States, and during his reign England, Bulgaria, and Portugal all became papal fiefs. Innocent expanded papal legal authority by claiming jurisdiction over matters relating to sin, and he involved himself in the political affairs of France and the Holy Roman Empire. He called the Fourth Crusade (1202–04), which led to the sack of Constantinople, and the Albigensian Crusade, which was intended to end heresy in southern France, and he approved legislation requiring Jews to wear special clothing. Focusing also on spiritual matters, he approved the orders of St. Francis of Assisi (Francis of Assisi, Saint) (the Franciscans; 1209) and St. Dominic (Dominic, Saint) (the Dominicans; 1215) and presided over the fourth Lateran Council in 1215, which instituted various reforms and approved the use of the term transubstantiation to describe the eucharistic transformation.

      In the 13th century, Innocent's successors continued his policies and further extended papal authority. The popes carried out the inquisition and pursued a vendetta against the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick II, bringing to a close a struggle that had begun in the 11th century and that undermined imperial power for generations to come. The centralization of administrative and jurisdictional power in the Roman Curia (the body of officials that assists the pope), however, led to increasing financial and administrative difficulties. To bring about reform, the pious hermit Pietro da Morrone was elected as Pope Celestine V (Celestine V, Saint) in 1294. Celestine was unequal to the task, however, and he resigned from the papal office in December of the same year (he was one of only a few popes to do so willingly). The next election brought to power one of the most extreme advocates of papal authority, Boniface VIII (1294–1303). Although he was a brilliant lawyer, his obstinate personality led to a clash with the French king, Philip IV, which in turn brought about the collapse of the medieval papacy. Papal corruption and the humiliation of Boniface forced the papal court to move, under French influence, to Avignon in 1309. This so-called “Babylonian Captivity (Avignon papacy)” of the papacy lasted until 1377. The Avignon popes, though skilled administrators, were not distinguished by their piety. Indeed, John XXII (1316–34) is best known for his battle with the Spiritual Franciscans and his questionable views on the Beatific Vision (the experience of God in the afterlife); and Clement VI (1342–52), who protected the Jews against persecution by those who blamed them for the Black Death, established a reputation as a patron of the arts. Continued papal corruption and the papacy's absence from Rome gave rise to loud calls for sacramental and organizational reform. As the European world disintegrated into its component national parts, the universalism of the church and the papacy was challenged.

The Renaissance and Reformation papacy

      The Italian Renaissance, sometimes dated from the death of Petrarch in 1374, is generally seen as a break with medieval culture, but this was not entirely true, especially for the papacy, which witnessed the further development of many medieval themes. Notably, the continued decline of the political power of the Holy See was accelerated by the Western Schism (1378–1417), in which rival factions of cardinals elected popes in both Rome and Avignon. The schism erupted as a result of the growing desire, voiced by Petrarch and by St. Catherine of Siena (Catherine of Siena, Saint), among others, to see the papacy return to Rome. Gregory XI's (1370–78) attempt at this led to further problems for the papacy and the outbreak of schism. His successor, Urban VI (1378–89), acted in such a high-handed fashion that he alienated a considerable number of cardinals, who elected a new pope and returned to Avignon. Although Christians were divided in their loyalties, all of them recognized the dire nature of the situation. Theologians responded with the doctrine of conciliarism, which holds that an ecumenical council has greater authority than the pope and may depose him. Although the conciliar movement ultimately collapsed under the weight of its own success, it did help to resolve the crisis. In 1417 the Council of Constance (Constance, Council of) ended the schism by deposing or accepting the resignations of three rival popes (one had been elected by the Council of Pisa (Pisa, Council of) in 1409).

      Under Pope Nicholas V (1447–55) there was a revival of classical studies, which contributed to the development of humanism and the Renaissance. Nicholas also envisioned the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica and the papal library. The vain and ostentatious Pope Paul II (1464–71), who had a virtual mania for gems and collectibles, built the magnificent Palazzo Venezia in Rome. His successor, Pope Sixtus IV (1471–84), proceeded with the beautification of the city. The secular outlook of the papacy reached a high point with the election of Rodrigo Borgia as Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503) and continued under Pope Julius II (1503–13), who proved a great patron of the arts. In many ways Julius, known as “the Terrible,” proved a better prince than a priest, because of his love of war and political intrigue. He was followed by Pope Leo X (1513–21), who supposedly quipped upon his accession, “God has given us the papacy, now let us enjoy it.” During the 15th and 16th centuries, the popes created a great Christian capital and patronized artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci. As Renaissance Rome became a centre of art, science, and politics, its religious role declined; thus began the steps that provoked the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century.

      Small wonder that these Renaissance popes, most of whom were more involved in political and financial alliances than in pastoral work, proved unable to respond effectively to the crisis. Only later did the papacy attempt to reform the church by calling the Council of Trent (Trent, Council of) (1545–63), instituting the so-called Counter-Reformation. The theological and ecclesiastical decisions of this council largely determined the shape of the Roman Catholic church until the second half of the 20th century.

The early modern papacy

      The popes of this period found their programs challenged by the growing power of the nation-states. Nevertheless, there were some positive developments, including reform of the College of Cardinals and the founding of new orders such as the Theatines (1524), the Barnabites (1530), the Capuchins (Capuchin) (1619), and, perhaps most important of all, the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits (Jesuit) (1540). These orders played a crucial role in the revitalization of the church and in the growing influence of the papacy. They enabled the early modern popes—particularly Pius V (Pius V, Saint) (1566–72), Sixtus V (1585–90), Paul V (1605–21), Innocent XI (Innocent XI Blessed) (1676–89), and Benedict XIV (1740–58)—to proceed with their policy of evangelization. The establishment of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in 1622 demonstrated the importance of the papacy in the missionary movement. The papacy also attempted to implement the policies of the Council of Trent but encountered political and diplomatic obstacles, as well as the reality that Christendom remained divided into competing states, whose religious aspirations were often subordinate to dynastic and national ambitions.

      Determined to continue the campaign against heresy, the popes of the Counter-Reformation did so inconsistently, displaying an ambiguous attitude toward modernization. Although they opposed the increasing infringement on papal prerogatives by national governments, they embraced the idea of structural modernization, which led to greater centralization in the church around the papacy. The 18th-century Enlightenment created a climate hostile to faith in general and to the papacy in particular. Philosophers and political leaders in France, Spain, Portugal, Naples, and elsewhere launched a two-pronged attack on the political and religious programs of the papacy, focusing much of their opposition on the Society of Jesus, which Pope Clement XIV (1769–74) was compelled to suppress in 1773. To make matters worse, the centralization of the papacy was opposed by movements such as Gallicanism (in France), Febronianism (in Germany), and Josephism (in Austria and Italy), each of which championed national ecclesiastical autonomy from Rome.

The modern papacy

      The revolutionary age in Europe, which opened with the French Revolution, continued the attack on the papacy. It provoked the capture of two popes by the French, Pius VI (1775–99) and Pius VII (1800–23), and the creation of a Roman Republic (1798–99), which replaced the Papal States. Although the conservative powers reestablished the Papal States at the Congress of Vienna (Vienna, Congress of) (1814–15), the papacy now confronted Italian nationalism and the Risorgimento (Italian: “Rising Again”), the 19th-century movement of Italian unification, which prompted a counter-Risorgimento on the part of the papacy. Pope Pius IX (1846–78), the longest-reigning pope, began his career as a reformer but became increasingly conservative in his outlook; his Syllabus of Errors (1864) listed 80 of the “principal errors of our time” and set the church on a conservative course centred on the papacy.

      The alignment of the papacy with conservative political forces worked to undermine liberal and modernizing influences within the church and contributed to the loss of the Papal States to the new Kingdom of Italy in 1870. Divested of its remaining temporal power, the papacy increasingly relied on its spiritual or teaching authority, proclaiming papal infallibility and espousing Ultramontanism (the idea that the pope is the absolute ruler of the church). Thus in 1870 the First Vatican Council (Vatican Council, First) officially defined as a matter of faith the absolute primacy of the pope and his infallibility when pronouncing on “matters of faith and morals.” Subsequently, Pope Leo XIII (Leo XIII) (1878–1903) condemned Americanism (a movement among American Catholics that sought to adapt the church to modern civilization), and Pope Pius X (Pius X, Saint) (1903–14) condemned Modernism (a movement that employed modern historical and critical methods to interpret scripture and Catholic teaching and that also challenged papal centralization). The 1929 Lateran Treaty with the Fascist government of Italy created the minuscule state of Vatican City and granted the papacy formal temporal sovereignty over the territory.

      Despite the social program initiated by Pope Leo XIII's Rerum Novarum (“Of New Things”) in 1891, suspicion of liberal ideas and modern culture persisted in Rome until the Second Vatican Council (Vatican Council, Second) (Vatican II), called in 1962 by Pope John XXIII (John (XXIII)) (1958–63) and continued until 1965 by Paul VI (1963–78). John sought an aggiornamento (Italian: “bringing up to date”) to modernize the church, and in part he succeeded. Although many conservative Catholics believed that the council went too far, especially in terminating the requirement of the traditional Latin mass, the theological and organizational changes made at Vatican II significantly revitalized the church and opened it to reform, ecumenical dialogue, and increased participation of bishops, clergy, and laity. Internationally, the papacy assumed a more dynamic role following the unsuccessful attempts at mediation by Pope Benedict XV (1914–22) and Pope Pius XII (1939–58) during World War I and World War II. At the close of the 20th century the prospect of Pius XII's canonization renewed the controversy over his neutrality during World War II and his failure to denounce the Holocaust more forcefully and openly, a fact that his critics dubbed the “silence.” Paul VI assumed a more interventionist policy, speaking out on a number of issues and traveling worldwide.

      The internationalization of the College of Cardinals under John XXIII increased its numbers beyond the 70 set by Sixtus V in 1586. In response, Paul VI imposed new regulations specifying that cardinals who are age 80 or older cannot vote for a pope and limiting the number of voting cardinals to 120. Although John Paul II (1978–2005) created more cardinals than any of his predecessors, he confirmed the number of voting cardinals at 120 in his decree Universi Dominici Gregis (“Shepherd of the Lord's Whole Flock,” 1995). In 1996 John Paul issued a set of rules governing papal elections, one of which provided that under certain circumstances the traditionally required majority of two-thirds plus one could be replaced by a simple majority. This rule was repealed by his successor, Benedict XVI, in 2007.

      The pontificate of John Paul II, one of the longest in history, left a profound mark on the church and the papacy. A charismatic and beloved figure, John Paul traveled more than all other popes combined, played a crucial role in the collapse of communism in Poland and the rest of eastern Europe, canonized numerous new saints, and made great strides toward interfaith dialogue with non-Christians. He established formal and full diplomatic relations with Israel and sought greater reconciliation with the Jews and Judaism; he was the first pope to worship in a synagogue, and he made a historic pilgrimage to Jerusalem, during which he prayed at the Western Wall. He retained traditional positions on a number of issues, however, including the ordination of women, clerical marriage, homosexuality, birth control, and abortion, and he was implacably opposed to liberation theology, which he felt was uncomfortably close to Marxism. John Paul's efforts to bridge the gap with other Christian churches met with only limited success. His stance against the use of condoms to prevent sexually transmitted diseases was criticized by human rights workers and some politicians for its perceived contribution to the spread of AIDS in Africa. The scandal of the 1990s and early 2000s surrounding the church's handling of numerous cases of sexual abuse by priests prompted some critics of the pope to question further the wisdom of his stance on sexual issues. This controversy became part of a long-standing debate, joined by Catholics and non-Catholics alike, about whether the church had accommodated too much or too little to the secular, modern age.

      The 2005 election of conservative German theologian and cardinal Joseph Ratzinger as Pope Benedict XVI did not immediately resolve this debate. Benedict continued his predecessor's commitment to ecumenical and interfaith outreach. Yet, while Vatican II proclaimed that the church should engage with and interpret its mission in response to contemporary cultural mores, Benedict's homilies, public addresses, and encyclicals—the latter including Deus caritas est (2006; “God Is Love”) and Spe salvi (2007; “Saved by Hope”)—offered instead a sharp critique of the “foundations of the modern age” and warned against the “dangers” of secularism.

Frank J. Coppa Ed.

List of popes and antipopes

       Popes and antipopes Popes and antipopesA list of popes and antipopes is provided in the table.

Additional Reading

General works

Interest in the papacy has resulted in a spate of general studies, including P.G. Maxwell-Stuart, Chronicle of the Popes (1997), whose bibliography is alphabetical rather than chronological. Frank J. Coppa (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Vatican and Papacy (1999), focuses on developments from the Renaissance to the present but has entries on all popes, antipopes, and councils. Richard P. McBrien, Lives of the Popes: The Pontiffs from St. Peter to John Paul II (1997, reissued 2000), offers chronologically arranged biographies of the popes, providing useful information on how they are elected and removed from office. J.N.D. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of Popes (1986, reissued 1996), also contains chronological coverage of popes and antipopes as well as information on the papacy in transition. Somewhat broader in scope but immensely useful is Richard P. McBrien et al. (eds.), The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism (1995), which treats in one volume numerous aspects of the papacy and the church with clarity and balance. Eamon Duffy, Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes, 2nd ed. (2001), is both accurate and readable. Among other recent volumes on the papacy are William J. La Due, The Chair of Saint Peter (1999); and Allan Hall, A History of the Papacy (1998).

The early papacy

Works on the early papacy include the old but still useful L. (Louis) Duchesne, Early History of the Christian Church, trans. by Claude Jenkins, 3 vol. (1909–24, reissued 1965; originally published in French, 4th ed., 1908–11). John Chapman, Studies on the Early Papacy (1928, reprinted 1971), considers various aspects of this emerging institution; while J. Stevenson (ed.), Creeds, Councils, and Controversies: Documents Illustrative of the History of the Church A.D. 337–461, rev. ed. (1988), provides important texts. The volume by James T. Shotwell and Louise Ropes Loomis (eds.), The See of Peter (1927, reissued 1991), offers in translation the various texts explaining the basis for the Catholic belief in Peter's primacy and the institution of the papacy. Adrian Fortescue, The Early Papacy to the Synod of Chalcedon in 451, 3rd ed. (1997), is a standard source.

The medieval papacy

The most complete histories of the early medieval papacy are Horace K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, 2nd ed., 18 vol. (1925–32, reissued in 19 vol., 1979); and The Book of Pontiffs, rev. 2nd ed., trans. from Latin by Raymond Davis (1999). Works on the emergence of the papal state and the development of papal government include Thomas F.X. Noble, The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825 (1984); Peter Partner, The Lands of St. Peter (1972); and Walter Ullmann, The Growth of Papal Government in the Middle Ages, 3rd ed. (1970). Uta-Renate Blumenthal, The Investiture Controversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century (1988, reissued 1991; originally published in German, 1982); and H.E.J. Cowdrey, Pope Gregory VII: 1073–1085 (1998), provide the best introductions to that important pope and the reform associated with him. The role of the papacy in the later Middle Ages is covered in Colin Morris, The Papal Monarchy: The Western Church from 1050 to 1250 (1989, reissued 1991); Kenneth Pennington, Pope and Bishops: The Papal Monarchy in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (1984); and Aristeides Papadakis, The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy: The Church 1071–1453 A.D. (1994).

The Renaissance and Reformation papacy

A comprehensive treatment of the Renaissance and Reformation papacy is found in Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, trans. from German, 40 vol. (1891–1953, reissued 1978– ). Although an ultramontane account, it provides material and sources not readily available elsewhere. John A.F. Thomson, Popes and Princes, 1417–1517 (1980); and Kate J.P. Lowe, Church and Politics in Renaissance Italy (1993, reissued 2002), are also useful. Further details on the cardinals, curia, and the papal court of the Renaissance may be found in Peter Partner, The Pope's Men: The Papal Civil Service in the Renaissance (1990); and Charles L. Stinger, The Renaissance in Rome (1985, reissued 1998). There are numerous works on the Reformation, and the antipapal sentiment therein, including A.G. Dickens, The German Nation and Martin Luther (1974, reissued 1976); and Harold J. Grimm, The Reformation Era, 1500–1650, 2nd ed. (1973).

The early modern papacy

The Counter-Reformation and the first years of the early modern papacy are covered in Pierre Janelle, The Catholic Reformation (1949, reissued 1971); A.G. Dickens, The Counter Reformation (1968, reissued 1979); and Jean Delumeau, Catholicism Between Luther and Voltaire (1977; originally published in French, 1971). The Council of Trent is the focus of Hubert Jedin, A History of the Council of Trent, trans. from German by Ernst Graf, 2 vol. (1957–63), only two volumes of the original five having been translated into English. The papal role in the Thirty Years' War is treated in Robert Bireley, Religion and Politics in the Age of the Counterreformation (1981). Raphael H. Song, The Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (1961), considers the papal role in the missionary effort. The entire period is covered in A.D. Wright, The Early Modern Papacy: From the Council of Trent to the French Revolution, 1564–1789 (2000).

The modern papacy

A good starting point and recent overview of the entire period is offered in Frank J. Coppa, The Modern Papacy Since 1789 (1998). More concentrated in its approach is Owen Chadwick, A History of the Popes, 1830–1914 (1998, reissued 2003), the best survey of the 19th-century papacy. Works on the revolutionary period include H. Daniel-Rops, The Church in an Age of Revolution, 1789–1870 (1965, reissued in 2 vol., 1967; trans. by John Warrington, vol. 1 of L'Église des revolutions, 3 vol., 1960–65); E.E.Y. Hales, Revolution and Papacy, 1769–1846 (1960, reissued 1966); and Owen Chadwick, The Popes and European Revolution (1981). The role of the papacy in the age of reaction is explored in Roger Aubert et al., The Church Between Revolution and Restoration (1980; trans. by Peter Drucker of vol. 1 of Die Kirche im der Gegenwart, 2 vol., 1970–73). The long, crucial, and controversial pontificate of Pius IX is considered in E.E.Y. Hales, Pio Nono, 2nd ed. (1956, reissued 1962); and Frank J. Coppa, Pope Pius IX, Crusader in a Secular Age (1979). Twentieth-century developments are explored in J. Derek Holmes, The Papacy in the Modern World, 1914–1978 (1981); and Carlo Falconi, The Popes in the Twentieth Century, trans. by Muriel Grindrod (1968; originally published in Italian, 1967), among others. Peter Hebblethwaite, John XXIII: Pope of the Council, rev. ed. (1994; also published as John XXIII: Pope of the Century, 2000), and Paul VI: The First Modern Pope (1993), are important and scholarly biographies, if poorly edited ones. There are innumerable biographies of Pope John Paul II, but to date only Tad Szulc, Pope John Paul II (1995), claims an official status. Most of the material in the multivolume collection of Claudia Carlen, The Papal Encyclicals, 5 vol. (1981, reissued 1990), provides essential documents of the modern popes from Pius VI through the first years of the pontificate of John Paul II.Frank J. Coppa

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