environmental works

environmental works

Introduction

      infrastructure that provides cities and towns with water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services. They include extensive networks of reservoirs, pipelines, treatment systems, pumping stations, and waste disposal facilities. These municipal works serve two important purposes: they protect human health and safeguard environmental quality. Treatment of drinking water helps to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever, and proper waste treatment and disposal practices prevent degradation of ecosystems and neighbourhoods. Similarly, cleaning the air of pollutant gases and particles as they are generated prevents adverse effects on both human health and the environment.

      Steady population growth, urbanization, and industrial development place steadily increasing demands on existing infrastructure, and these demands in turn create a need for the planning, design, and construction of new environmental works. Because the provision, operation, and maintenance of these works require a major investment of public funds, concerned citizens as well as municipal officials and decision makers should be familiar with the basic concepts of environmental works technology.

      This article presents an introduction to the fundamentals of environmental works. Its main focus is on the modern facilities and systems that provide communities with water, dispose of waste, and prevent pollution.

Municipal water supply (water supply)
      Of all municipal services, provision of potable water is perhaps the most vital. All people depend on water for drinking, cooking, washing, carrying away wastes, and other domestic needs. Water supply (water-supply system) systems must also meet requirements for public, commercial, and industrial activities. During droughts, floods, earthquakes, or other emergencies, vigorous efforts must be made to maintain public water supplies.

Historical background
Developments in supply systems
      Water was an important factor in the location of the earliest settled communities, and the evolution of public water supply systems is tied directly to the growth of cities (urbanization). In the development of water resources beyond their natural condition in rivers, lakes, and springs, the digging of shallow wells was probably the earliest innovation. As the need for water increased and tools were developed, wells were made deeper. Brick-lined wells were built by city dwellers in the Indus River basin as early as 2500 BC, and wells more than 1,600 feet (almost 500 metres) deep are known to have been used in ancient China. Construction of qanāts, slightly sloping tunnels driven into hillsides that contained groundwater, probably originated in northwestern Persia (now Armenia) about 700 BC. From the hillsides the water was conveyed by gravity in open channels to nearby towns or cities. The use of qanāts became widespread throughout the region, and some are still in existence. Until 1933 the Iranian capital city, Tehrān, drew its entire water supply from a system of qanāts.

      The need to channel water supplies from distant sources was an outcome of the growth of urban communities. Among the most notable of ancient water conveyance systems are the aqueducts (aqueduct) built between 312 BC and AD 455 throughout the Roman Empire. Some of these impressive works are still in existence. The writings of Sextus Julius Frontinus (Frontinus, Sextus Julius) (who was appointed superintendent of Roman aqueducts in AD 97) provide information about the design and construction of the 11 major aqueducts that supplied Rome itself. Extending from a distant spring-fed area, a lake, or a river, a typical Roman aqueduct included a series of underground and aboveground channels. The longest was the Aqua Marcia, built in 144 BC. Its source was about 23 miles (37 km) from Rome. The aqueduct itself was 57 miles (92 km) long, however, because it had to meander along land contours in order to maintain a steady flow of water. For about 50 miles (80 km) the aqueduct was underground in a covered trench, and only for the last 7 miles (11 km) was it carried aboveground on an arcade. In fact, most of the combined length of the aqueducts supplying Rome (about 260 miles [420 km]) was built as covered trenches or tunnels. When crossing a valley, aqueducts were supported by arcades comprising one or more levels of massive granite piers and impressive arches.

      The aqueducts ended in Rome at distribution reservoirs, from which the water was conveyed to public baths or fountains. A few very wealthy or privileged citizens had water piped directly into their homes, but most of the people carried water in containers from a public fountain. Water was running constantly, the excess being used to clean the streets and flush the sewers. Ancient aqueducts and pipelines were not capable of withstanding much pressure. Channels were constructed of cut stone, brick, rubble, or rough concrete. Pipes were typically made of drilled stone or of hollowed wooden logs, although clay and lead pipes were also used.

      During the Middle Ages there was no notable progress in the methods or materials used to convey and distribute water. Cast-iron pipes with joints capable of withstanding high pressures were not used very much until the early 19th century. The steam engine was first applied to water pumping operations at about that time, making it possible for all but the smallest communities to have drinking water supplied directly to individual homes. Asbestos cement, ductile iron, reinforced concrete, and steel came into use as materials for water supply pipelines in the 20th century.

Developments in water treatment
      In addition to quantity of supply, water (water purification) quality is also of concern. Even the ancients had an appreciation for the importance of water purity. Sanskrit writings from as early as 2000 BC tell how to purify foul water by boiling and filtering. But it was not until the middle of the 19th century that a direct link between polluted water and disease (cholera) was proved. And it was not until the end of that same century that the German bacteriologist Robert Koch (Koch, Robert) proved the germ theory of disease, establishing a scientific basis for the treatment and sanitation of drinking water.

      Water treatment is the alteration of a water source in order to achieve a quality that meets specified goals. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, the main goal was elimination of deadly waterborne diseases. The treatment of public drinking water to remove pathogenic, or disease-causing, microorganisms began about that time. Treatment methods included sand filtration as well as the use of chlorine for disinfection. The virtual elimination of diseases such as cholera and typhoid in developed countries proved the success of this water treatment technology.

      In developing countries, waterborne disease is still the principal water quality concern. In industrialized nations, however, concern has shifted to the chronic health effects related to chemical contamination. For example, trace amounts of certain synthetic organic substances in drinking water are suspected of causing cancer in humans. The added goal of reducing such health risks is seen in the continually increasing number of factors included in drinking-water standards.

Water sources
Global distribution
      Water is present in abundant quantities on and under the Earth's surface, but less than 1 percent of it is liquid fresh water. Most of the Earth's estimated 326 million cubic miles (1.4 billion cubic km) of water is in the oceans or is frozen in polar ice caps and glaciers. Ocean water contains about 4.5 ounces per gallon (35 grams per litre) of dissolved minerals or salts, making it unfit for drinking and for most industrial or agricultural uses.

      There is ample fresh water (containing less than one-eighth ounce of salts per gallon, or less than 3 grams of salts per litre) to satisfy all human needs. It is not always available, though, at the times and places it is needed, and it is not uniformly distributed over the Earth. In many locations the availability of good-quality water is further reduced because of urban development, industrial growth, and environmental pollution.

Surface water and groundwater
      Surface water and groundwater are both important sources for community water supply needs. Groundwater is a common source for single homes and small towns, and rivers and lakes are the usual sources for large cities. Although approximately 98 percent of liquid fresh water exists as groundwater, much of it occurs very deep in the Earth. This makes pumping very expensive, preventing the full development and use of all groundwater resources.

The hydrologic cycle (hydrologic cycle)
 Water and water vapour are in constant circulation, powered by the energy from sunlight and gravity in a natural process called the hydrologic cycle (see figure—>). Water evaporates from the ocean and land surfaces, is held temporarily as vapour in the atmosphere, and falls back to the Earth's surface as precipitation. Surface water is the residue of precipitation and melted snow, called runoff. Where the average rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which runoff seeps into the soil, evaporates, or is absorbed by vegetation, bodies of surface water such as streams, rivers, and lakes are formed. Water that infiltrates the Earth's surface becomes groundwater, slowly seeping downward into extensive layers of porous soil and rock called aquifers (aquifer). Under the pull of gravity, groundwater flows slowly and steadily through the aquifer. In low areas it emerges in springs and streams. Both surface water and groundwater eventually return to the ocean, where evaporation replenishes the supply of atmospheric water vapour. Winds carry the moist air over land, precipitation occurs, and the hydrologic cycle continues.

Surface water sources
      The total land area that contributes surface runoff to a river or lake is called a watershed, river basin, or catchment area (drainage basin). The volume of water available for municipal supply depends mostly on the amount of rainfall. It also depends on the size of the watershed, the slope of the ground, the type of soil and vegetation, and the type of land use.

      The flow rate or discharge of a river varies with time. Higher flow rates typically occur in the spring, and lower flow rates in the winter. When the average discharge of a river is not enough for a dependable supply of water, a conservation reservoir may be built. The flow of water is blocked by a dam, allowing an artificial lake to be formed. Conservation reservoirs store water from wet-weather periods for use during times of drought and low streamflow. A water intake structure is built within the reservoir, with inlet ports and valves at several depths. Since the quality of water in a reservoir varies seasonally with depth, a multilevel intake allows water of best quality to be withdrawn. Sometimes it is advisable, for economic reasons, to provide a multipurpose reservoir. A multipurpose reservoir is designed to satisfy a combination of community water needs. In addition to drinking water, the reservoir may also provide flood control, hydroelectric power, and recreation.

Groundwater sources
      The value of an aquifer as a source of groundwater is a function of the porosity of the geologic stratum, or layer, of which it is formed. Water is withdrawn from an aquifer by pumping it out of a well or infiltration gallery. An infiltration gallery typically includes several horizontal perforated pipes radiating outward from the bottom of a large-diameter vertical shaft. Wells are constructed in several ways, depending on the depth and nature of the aquifer. Wells used for public water supplies, usually more than 100 feet (30 metres) deep and from 4 to 12 inches (10 to 30 cm) in diameter, must penetrate large aquifers that can provide dependable yields of good-quality water. They are drilled using impact or rotary techniques and are usually lined with a metal pipe or casing to prevent contamination. The annular space around the outside of the upper portion of the casing is filled with cement grout, and a special sanitary seal is installed at the top to provide further protection. At the bottom of the casing, a slotted screen is attached to strain silt and sand out of the groundwater. A submersible pump driven by an electric motor can be used to raise the water to the surface. Sometimes a deep well may penetrate a confined artesian aquifer, in which case natural hydrostatic pressure can raise the water to the surface.

Water requirements
      Municipal water supply systems include facilities for storage, transmission, treatment, and distribution. The design of these facilities depends on the quality of the water, on the particular needs of the user or consumer, and on the quantities of water that must be processed.

Drinking-water quality
      Water has such a strong tendency to dissolve other substances that it is rarely found in nature in a pure condition. When it falls as rain, small amounts of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide become dissolved in it; raindrops also carry tiny dust particles and other substances. As it flows over the ground, water picks up fine soil particles, microbes, organic material, and soluble minerals. In lakes, bogs, and swamps, water may gain colour, taste, and odour from decaying vegetation and other natural organic matter. Groundwater usually acquires more dissolved minerals than does surface runoff because of its longer direct contact with soil and rock. It may also absorb gases such as hydrogen sulfide and methane. In populated areas the quality of surface water as well as groundwater is directly influenced by human activities and the effects of pollution.

Health concerns
      Five general types of impurities are of public health concern. These are organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, turbidity, microorganisms, and radioactive substances. Organic contaminants include various pesticides, industrial solvents, and trihalomethanes such as chloroform. Inorganic contaminants of major concern include arsenic, nitrate, fluoride, and toxic metals such as lead and mercury. All these substances can harm human health when present above certain concentrations in drinking water. A low concentration of fluoride, however, has been proved to promote dental health. Some communities add fluoride to their water for this purpose.

      Turbidity refers to cloudiness caused by very small particles of silt, clay, and other substances suspended in water. Even a slight degree of turbidity in drinking water is objectionable to most people. Turbidity also interferes with disinfection by creating a possible shield for pathogenic organisms. Groundwater normally has very low turbidity owing to the natural filtration that occurs as it percolates through the soil. Surface waters, though, are often high in turbidity.

      The most important microbiological measure of drinking-water quality is a group of bacteria called coliforms. coliform bacteria normally are not pathogenic, but they are always present in the intestinal tract of humans and are excreted in very large numbers with human waste. Water contaminated with human waste always contains coliforms, and it is also likely to contain pathogens excreted by infected individuals in the community. Since it is easier to test for the presence of coliforms rather than for specific types of pathogens, coliforms are used as indicator organisms for measuring the biological quality of water. If coliforms are not found in the water, it can be assumed that the water is also free of pathogens. The coliform count thus reflects the chance of pathogens being present; the lower the coliform count, the less likely it is that pathogens are in the water.

      Radioactive materials from natural as well as industrial sources can be harmful water contaminants. Wastes from uranium mining, nuclear power plants, and medical research are possible pollutants. Strontium-90 and tritium are radioactive contaminants that have been found in water as a result of nuclear weapons testing. Naturally occurring substances such as radium and radon gas are found in some groundwater sources. The danger from dissolved radon gas arises not from drinking the water but from breathing the gas after it is released into the air.

Aesthetic concerns
       colour, taste, and odour are physical characteristics of drinking water that are important for aesthetic reasons rather than for health reasons. Colour in water may be caused by decaying leaves or algae, giving it a brownish yellow hue. Taste and odour may be caused by naturally occurring dissolved organics or gases. Some well-water supplies, for example, have a rotten-egg odour caused by hydrogen sulfide gas. Chemical impurities associated with the aesthetic quality of drinking water include iron, manganese, copper, zinc, and chloride. Dissolved metals impart a bitter taste to water and may stain laundry and plumbing fixtures. Excessive chlorides give the water an objectionable salty taste.

      Another parameter of water quality is hardness. This is a term used to describe the effect of dissolved minerals (mostly calcium and magnesium). Minerals cause deposits of scale in hot water pipes, and they also interfere with the lathering action of soap. Hard water does not harm human health, but the economic problems it causes make it objectionable to most people.

Standards
      Water quality standards set limits on the concentrations of impurities allowed in water. Standards also affect the selection of raw water sources and the choice of treatment processes. The development of water quality standards began in the United States in the early 20th century. Since that time, the total number of regulated contaminants has increased as toxicological (toxicology) knowledge and analytical measurement techniques have improved. Modern testing methods now allow the detection of contaminants in extremely low concentrations—as low as one part contaminant per one billion parts water or even, in some cases, per one trillion parts water. Water quality standards are continually evolving, usually becoming more stringent. As a result, the number of regulated contaminants increases over time, and their allowable concentrations in water are lowered.

      Drinking-water regulations include two types of standards: primary and secondary. Primary standards are designed to protect public health, whereas secondary standards are based on aesthetic factors rather than on health effects. Primary standards specify maximum contaminant levels for many chemical, microbiological, and radiological parameters of water quality. They reflect the best available scientific and engineering judgment and take into account exposure from other sources in the environment and from foods. Turbidity is also included in the primary standards because of its tendency to interfere with disinfection. Secondary standards are guidelines or suggested maximum levels of colour, taste, odour, hardness, corrosiveness, and certain other factors.

Municipal water consumption
      Water consumption in a community is characterized by several types of demand, including domestic, public, commercial, and industrial uses. Domestic demand includes water for drinking, cooking, washing, laundering, and other household functions. Public demand includes water for fire protection, street cleaning, and use in schools and other public buildings. Commercial and industrial demands include water for stores, offices, hotels, laundries, restaurants, and most manufacturing plants. There is usually a wide variation in total water demand among different communities. This variation depends on population, geographic location, climate, the extent of local commercial and industrial activity, and the cost of water.

      Water use or demand is expressed numerically by average daily consumption per capita (per person). In the United States the average is approximately 100 gallons (380 litres) per capita per day for domestic and public needs. Overall the average total demand is about 180 gallons (680 litres) per capita per day, when commercial and industrial water uses are included. (These figures do not include withdrawals from freshwater sources for such purposes as crop irrigation or cooling operations at electric power-generating facilities.) Water consumption in some developing countries may average as little as 4 gallons (15 litres) per capita per day. The world average is estimated to be approximately 16 gallons (60 litres) per person per day.

      In any community, water demand varies on a seasonal, daily, and hourly basis. On a hot summer day, for example, it is not unusual for total water consumption to be as much as 200 percent of the average demand. The peak demands in residential areas usually occur in the morning and early evening hours (just before and after the normal workday). Water demands in commercial and industrial districts, though, are usually uniform during the working day. Minimum water demands typically occur in the very early or predawn morning hours. Civil and environmental engineers must carefully study each community's water use patterns in order to design efficient pumping and distribution systems.

Water treatment (water purification)
      Water in rivers or lakes is rarely clean enough for human consumption if it is not first treated or purified. Groundwater, too, often needs some level of treatment to render it potable. The primary objective of water treatment is to protect the health of the community. Potable water must, of course, be free of harmful microorganisms and chemicals, but public supplies should also be aesthetically desirable so that consumers will not be tempted to use water from another, more attractive but unprotected source. The water should be crystal clear, with almost no turbidity, and it should be free of objectionable colour, odour, and taste. For domestic supplies, water should not be corrosive, nor should it deposit troublesome amounts of scale and stains on plumbing fixtures. Industrial requirements may be even more stringent; many industries provide special treatment on their own premises.

      The type and extent of treatment required to obtain potable water depends on the quality of the source. The better the quality, the less treatment is needed. Surface water usually needs more extensive treatment than does groundwater, because most streams, rivers, and lakes are polluted to some extent. Even in areas remote from human populations, surface water contains suspended silt, organic material, decaying vegetation, and microbes from animal wastes. Groundwater, on the other hand, is usually free of microbes and suspended solids because of natural filtration as the water moves through soil, though it often contains relatively high concentrations of dissolved minerals from its direct contact with soil and rock.

 Water is treated in a variety of physical and chemical methods. Treatment of surface water begins with intake screens to prevent fish and debris from entering the plant and damaging pumps and other components. Conventional treatment of water primarily involves clarification and disinfection (as shown in the figure—>). Clarification removes most of the turbidity, making the water crystal clear. Disinfection, usually the final step in the treatment of drinking water, destroys pathogenic microbes. groundwater does not often need clarification, but it should be disinfected as a precaution to protect public health. In addition to clarification and disinfection, the processes of softening, aeration, carbon adsorption, and fluoridation may be used for certain public water sources. Desalination processes are used in areas where freshwater supplies are not readily available.

      Impurities in water are either dissolved or suspended. The suspended material reduces clarity, and the easiest way to remove it is to rely on gravity. Under quiescent (still) conditions, suspended particles that are denser than water gradually settle to the bottom of a basin or tank. This is called plain sedimentation. Long-term water storage (for more than one month) in reservoirs reduces the amount of suspended sediment and bacteria. Nevertheless, additional clarification is usually needed. In a treatment plant, sedimentation (settling) tanks are built to provide a few hours of storage or detention time as the water slowly flows from tank inlet to outlet. It is impractical to keep water in the tanks for longer periods, because of the large volumes that must be treated.

      Sedimentation tanks (sedimentation tank) may be rectangular or circular in shape and are typically about 10 feet (3 metres) deep. Several tanks are usually provided and arranged for parallel (side-by-side) operation. Influent (water flowing in) is uniformly distributed as it enters the tank. Clarified effluent (water flowing out) is skimmed from the surface as it flows over special baffles called weirs. The layer of concentrated solids that collects at the bottom of the tank is called sludge. Modern sedimentation tanks are equipped with mechanical scrapers that continuously push the sludge toward a collection hopper, where it is pumped out.

      The efficiency of a sedimentation tank for removing suspended solids depends more on its surface area than on its depth or volume. A relatively shallow tank with a large surface area will be more effective than a very deep tank that holds the same volume but has a smaller surface area. Most sedimentation tanks, though, are not less than 10 feet deep, in order to provide enough room for a sludge layer and a scraper mechanism.

      A technique called shallow-depth sedimentation is often applied in modern treatment plants. In this method, several prefabricated units or modules of “tube settlers” are installed near the tops of tanks in order to increase their effective surface area.

Coagulation and flocculation
      Suspended particles cannot be removed completely by plain settling. Large, heavy particles settle out readily, but smaller and lighter particles settle very slowly or in some cases do not settle at all. Because of this, the sedimentation step is usually preceded by a chemical process known as coagulation. Chemicals (coagulants) are added to the water to bring the nonsettling particles together into larger, heavier masses of solids called floc. Aluminum (alum) sulfate (alum) is the most common coagulant used for water purification. Other chemicals, such as ferric sulfate or sodium aluminate, may also be used.

      Coagulation is usually accomplished in two stages: rapid mixing and slow mixing. Rapid mixing serves to disperse the coagulants evenly throughout the water and to ensure a complete chemical reaction. Sometimes this is accomplished by adding the chemicals just before the pumps, allowing the pump impellers to do the mixing. Usually, though, a small flash-mix tank provides about one minute of detention time. After the flash mix, a longer period of gentle agitation is needed to promote particle collisions and enhance the growth of floc. This gentle agitation, or slow mixing, is called flocculation; it is accomplished in a tank that provides at least a half hour of detention time. The flocculation tank has wooden paddle-type mixers that slowly rotate on a horizontal motor-driven shaft. After flocculation the water flows into the sedimentation tanks. Some small water treatment plants combine coagulation and sedimentation in a single prefabricated steel unit called a solids-contact tank.

      Even after coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation does not remove enough suspended impurities from water to make it crystal clear. The remaining nonsettling floc causes noticeable turbidity in the water and can shield microbes from disinfection. Filtration is a physical process that removes these impurities from water by percolating it downward through a layer or bed of porous, granular material such as sand. Suspended particles become trapped within the pore spaces of the filter media, which also remove harmful protozoa and natural colour. Most surface water supplies require filtration after the coagulation and sedimentation steps. For surface waters with low turbidity and colour, however, a process of direct filtration, which is not preceded by sedimentation, may be used.

      Two types of sand filter are in use: slow and rapid. Slow filters require much more surface area than rapid filters and are difficult to clean. Most modern water treatment plants now use rapid dual-media filters following coagulation and sedimentation. A dual-media filter consists of a layer of anthracite coal above a layer of fine sand. The upper layer of coal traps most of the large floc, and the finer sand grains in the lower layer trap smaller impurities. This process is called in-depth filtration, as the impurities are not simply screened out or removed at the surface of the filter bed, as is the case in slow sand filters. In order to enhance in-depth filtration, so-called mixed-media filters are used in some treatment plants. These have a third layer of a fine-grained, dense mineral called garnet at the bottom of the bed.

 Rapid filters (see figure—>) are housed in boxlike concrete structures, with multiple boxes arranged on both sides of a piping gallery. A large tank called a clear well is usually built under the filters to hold the clarified water temporarily. A layer of coarse gravel usually supports the filter media. When clogged by particles removed from the water, the filter bed must be cleaned by backwashing. In the backwash process, the direction of flow through the filter is reversed. Clean water is forced upward through the media, expanding the filter bed slightly and carrying away the impurities in wash troughs. The backwash water is distributed uniformly across the filter bottom by an underdrain system of perforated pipes or porous tile blocks.

      Because of its reliability, the rapid filter is the most common type of filter used to treat public water supplies. However, other types of filters may be used, including pressure filters, diatomaceous earth filters, and microstrainers. A pressure filter has a granular media bed, but, instead of being open at the top like a gravity-flow rapid filter, it is enclosed in a cylindrical steel tank. Water is pumped through the filter under pressure. In diatomaceous earth filters a natural powderlike material composed of the shells of microscopic organisms called diatoms is used as a filter media. The powder is supported in a thin layer on a metal screen or fabric, and water is pumped through the layer. Pressure filters and diatomaceous earth filters are used most often for industrial applications or for public swimming pools.

      Microstrainers consist of a finely woven stainless steel wire cloth mounted on a revolving drum that is partially submerged in the water. Water enters through an open end of the drum and flows out through the screen, leaving suspended solids behind. Captured solids are washed into a hopper when they are carried up out of the water by the rotating drum. Microstrainers are used mainly to remove algae from surface water supplies before conventional gravity-flow filtration. (They can also be employed in advanced wastewater treatment.)

      Disinfection destroys pathogenic bacteria and is essential to prevent the spread of waterborne disease. Typically the final process in drinking-water treatment, it is accomplished by applying either chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet radiation to clarified water.

      The addition of chlorine or chlorine compounds to drinking water is called chlorination. Chlorine compounds may be applied in liquid and solid forms—for instance, liquid sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in tablet or granular form. However, the direct application of gaseous chlorine from pressurized steel containers is usually the most economical method for disinfecting large volumes of water.

      Taste or odour problems are avoided with proper dosages of chlorine at the treatment plant, and a residual concentration can be maintained throughout the distribution system to ensure a safe level at the points of use. Chlorine can combine with certain naturally occurring organic compounds in water to produce chloroform and other potentially harmful by-products. The risk of this is very small, however, when chlorine is applied after coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.

      Ozone gas may also be used for disinfection of drinking water. However, since ozone is unstable, it cannot be stored and must be produced on-site, making the process more expensive than chlorination. Ozone has the advantage of not causing taste or odour problems; it leaves no residual in the disinfected water. The lack of an ozone residual, however, makes it difficult to monitor its continued effectiveness as water flows through the distribution system.

      Ultraviolet radiation destroys pathogens, and its use as a disinfecting agent eliminates the need to handle chemicals. It leaves no residual, and it does not cause taste or odour problems. But the high cost of its application makes it a poor competitor with either chlorine or ozone as a disinfectant.

Additional treatment
      Clarification and disinfection are the conventional processes for purifying surface water supplies. Other techniques may be used in addition, or separately, to remove certain impurities, depending on the quality of the raw water. (water softener)

Water softening
      Softening is the process of removing the dissolved calcium and magnesium salts that cause hardness in water. It is achieved either by adding chemicals that form insoluble precipitates or by ion exchange. Chemicals used for softening include calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) and sodium carbonate (soda ash). This lime-soda method of water softening must be followed by sedimentation and filtration in order to remove the precipitates. Ion exchange is accomplished by passing the water through columns of a natural or synthetic resin that trades sodium ions for calcium and magnesium ions. Ion exchange columns must eventually be regenerated by washing with a sodium chloride solution.

      Aeration is a physical treatment process used for taste and odour control and for removal of dissolved iron and manganese. It consists of spraying water into the air or cascading it downward through stacks of perforated trays. Dissolved gases that cause tastes and odours are transferred from the water to the air. Oxygen from the air, meanwhile, reacts with any iron and manganese in the water, forming a precipitate that is removed by sedimentation and filtration.

Carbon adsorption
      An effective method for removing dissolved organic substances that cause tastes, odours, or colours is adsorption by activated carbon. Adsorption is the capacity of a solid particle to attract molecules to its surface. Powdered carbon mixed with water can adsorb and hold many different organic impurities. When the carbon is saturated with impurities, it is cleaned or reactivated by heating to a high temperature in a special furnace.

      Many communities reduce the incidence of tooth decay in young children by adding sodium fluoride or other fluorine compounds to filtered water. The dosage of fluoride must be carefully controlled. Low concentrations are beneficial and cause no harmful side effects, but very high concentrations of fluoride may cause discoloration of tooth enamel.

      Desalination, or desalting, is the separation of fresh water from salt water or brackish water. Major advances in desalination technology have taken place since the 1950s, as the need for supplies of fresh water has grown in arid and densely populated areas of the world. Desalted water is the main source of municipal supply in areas of the Caribbean, the Middle East, and North Africa, and its use is increasing in the southeastern United States. Although it is relatively expensive to produce, desalted water can be more economical than the alternative of transporting large quantities of fresh water over long distances.

      There are two basic types of desalting techniques: thermal processes and membrane processes. Both types consume considerable amounts of energy. Thermal methods involve heat transfer and a phase change of the water from liquid into vapour or ice. Membrane methods use very thin sheets of special plastic that act as selective barriers, allowing pure water to be separated from the salt.

Thermal processes
       distillation, a thermal process that includes heating, evaporation, and condensation, is the oldest and most widely used of desalination technologies. Modern methods for the distillation of large quantities of salt water rely on the fact that the boiling temperature of water is lowered as air pressure drops, significantly reducing the amount of energy needed to vaporize the water. Systems that utilize this principle include multistage flash distillation, multiple effect distillation, and vapour compression distillation.

      Multistage flash distillation plants account for more than half of the world production of desalted water. The process is carried out in a series of closed vessels (stages) set at progressively lower internal pressures. Heat is added to the system from a boiler. When preheated salt water enters a low-pressure chamber, some of it rapidly boils, or flashes, into water vapour. The vapour is condensed into fresh water on heat-exchange tubes that run through each stage. These tubes carry incoming seawater, thereby reducing the heat required from the boiler. Fresh water collects in trays under the tubes. The remaining brine flows into the next stage at even lower pressure, where some of it again flashes into vapour. A multistage flash plant may have as many as 40 stages, permitting salt water to boil repeatedly without supplying additional heat.

      Multiple effect distillation also takes place in a series of low-pressure vessels (effects), but it differs from multistage distillation in that preheated salt water is sprayed onto evaporator tubes in order to promote rapid evaporation in each vessel. This process requires pumping the salt water from one effect to the next.

      In the vapour compression system, heat is provided by the compression of vapour rather than by direct heat input from a boiler. When the vapour is rapidly compressed, its temperature rises. Some of the compressed and heated vapour is then recycled through a series of tubes passing through a reduced-pressure chamber, where evaporation of salt water occurs. Electricity is the main source of energy for this process. It is used for small-scale desalting applications—for example, at coastal resorts.

      Two other thermal processes are solar humidification and freezing. In solar humidification, salt water is collected in shallow basins in a “still,” a structure similar to a greenhouse. The water is warmed as sunlight enters through inclined glass or plastic covers. Water vapour rises, condenses on the cooler covers, and trickles down to a collecting trough. Thermal energy from the sun is free, but a solar still is expensive to build, requires a large land area, and needs additional energy for pumping water to and from the facility. Solar humidification units are suitable for providing desalted water to individual families or for very small villages where sunlight is abundant.

      The freezing process, also called crystallization, involves cooling salt water to form crystals of pure ice. The ice crystals are separated from the unfrozen brine, rinsed to remove residual salt, and then melted to produce fresh water. Freezing is theoretically more efficient than distillation, and scaling as well as corrosion problems are lessened at the lower operating temperatures, but the mechanical difficulties of handling mixtures of ice and water prevent the construction of large-scale commercial plants. In hot climates, heat leakage into the facility is also a significant problem.

Membrane processes
      Two commercially important membrane processes used for desalination are electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. They are used mainly to desalt brackish or highly mineralized water supplies rather than much saltier seawater. In both methods thin plastic sheets act as selective barriers, allowing fresh water but not salt to flow through.

      Most salts dissolved in water exist in the form of electrically charged particles called ions. Half are positively charged (e.g., sodium), and half are negatively charged (e.g., chloride). In electrodialysis an electric voltage is applied across the saline solution. This causes ions to migrate toward the electrode that has a charge opposite to that of their own. In a typical electrodialysis unit, several hundred plastic membranes that are selectively permeable to either positive ions or negative ions, but not both, are closely spaced in alternation and bound together with electrodes on the outside. Incoming salt water flows between the membrane sheets. Under the applied voltage the ions move in opposite directions through the membranes, but they are trapped by the next membrane in the stack. This forms alternate cells of dilute salt water and brine. The more dilute solution is recycled back through the stack until it reaches freshwater quality.

      When a semipermeable membrane separates two solutions of different concentrations, there is a natural tendency for the concentrations to become equalized. Water flows from the dilute side to the concentrated side. This process is called osmosis. However, pressure applied to the concentrated side can reverse the direction of this flow. In reverse osmosis (also called ultrafiltration) salty water is pumped into a vessel and pressurized against the membrane. Fresh water diffuses through the membrane, leaving a more concentrated salt solution behind.

      Next to multistage flash distillation, reverse osmosis is the second-ranking desalting process. It will play a greater role in the desalting of seawater and brackish water as more durable membranes are developed. It can also be applied to the advanced treatment of municipal sewage and industrial wastewater.

cogeneration and hybrid processes
      Desalting costs are reduced by using cogeneration and hybrid processes. Cogeneration (or dual-purpose) desalination plants are large-scale facilities that produce both electric power and desalted seawater. Distillation methods, in particular, are suitable for cogeneration. The high-pressure steam that runs electric generators can be recycled in the distillation unit's brine heater. This significantly reduces fuel consumption compared with what is required if separate facilities are built. Cogeneration is very common in the Middle East and North Africa.

      Hybrid systems are units that operate with two or more different desalting processes (e.g., distillation and reverse osmosis). They offer further economic benefits when employed in cogeneration plants, productively combining the operation of each process.

Effluent disposal
      Desalination produces fresh water but also a significant volume of waste effluent, called brine. Since the primary pollutant in the brine is salt, disposal in the ocean is generally not a problem for facilities located near a coastline. At inland desalination facilities, care must be taken to prevent pollution of groundwater or surface waters. Methods of brine disposal include dilution, evaporation, injection into a saline aquifer, and pipeline transport to a suitable disposal point.

Water distribution
      A water distribution system is a network of pumps, pipelines, storage tanks, and other appurtenances. It must deliver adequate quantities of water at pressures sufficient for operating plumbing fixtures and fire-fighting equipment, yet it must not deliver water at pressures high enough to increase the occurrence of leaks and pipeline breaks. Pressure-regulating valves may be installed to reduce pressure levels in low-lying service areas. More than half the cost of a municipal water supply system is for the distribution network.

Pipelines (pipeline)
      The pipeline system of a municipal water distribution network consists of arterial water mains or primary feeders, which convey water from the treatment plant to areas of major water use in the community, and smaller-diameter pipelines called secondary feeders, which tie in to the mains. Usually not less than 6 inches (150 mm) in diameter, these pipelines are placed within the public right-of-way so that service connections can be made for all potential water users. The pipelines are usually arranged in a gridiron pattern that allows water to circulate in interconnected loops; this permits any broken sections of pipe to be isolated for repair without disrupting service to large areas of the community. “Dead-end” patterns may also be used, but they do not permit circulation, and the water they provide is more susceptible to taste and odour problems because of stagnation.

      A water distribution pipeline must be able to resist internal and external forces, as well as corrosion. Pipes are placed under stress by internal water pressure, by the weight of the overlying soil, and by vehicles passing above. They may have to withstand water-hammer forces; these occur when valves are closed too rapidly, causing pressure waves to surge through the system. In addition, metal pipes may rust internally if the water supply is corrosive or externally because of corrosive soil conditions.

      Distribution pipes are made of asbestos cement, cast iron, ductile iron, plastic, reinforced concrete, or steel. Although not as strong as iron, asbestos cement, because of its corrosion resistance and ease of installation, is a desirable material for secondary feeders up to 16 inches (41 cm) in diameter. Pipe sections are easily joined with a coupling sleeve and rubber-ring gasket. cast iron has an excellent record of service, with many installations still functioning after 100 years. Ductile iron, a stronger and more elastic type of cast iron, is used in newer installations. Iron pipes are provided in diameters up to 48 inches (122 cm) and are usually coated to prevent corrosion. Underground sections are connected with bell-and-spigot joints, the spigot end of one pipe section being pushed into the bell end of an adjacent section. A rubber-ring gasket in the bell end is compressed when the two sections are joined, creating a watertight, flexible connection. Flanged and bolted joints are used for aboveground installations.

      The use of plastic pipes is increasing. Available in diameters up to 24 inches (61 cm), they are lightweight and easily installed. They are also corrosion-resistant, and their smoothness provides good hydraulic characteristics. Plastic pipes are connected either by a bell-and-spigot compression-type joint or by threaded screw couplings.

      Precast reinforced concrete pipe sections up to 12 feet (366 cm) in diameter are used for arterial mains. Reinforced concrete pipes are strong and durable. They are joined using a bell-and-spigot-type connection that is sealed with cement mortar. steel pipe is sometimes used for arterial mains in aboveground installations. It is very strong and lighter than concrete pipe, but it must be protected against corrosion by lining the interior and by painting and wrapping the exterior. Sections of steel pipe are joined by welding or with mechanical coupling devices.

Fittings
      In order to function properly, a water distribution system requires several types of fittings, including hydrants, shut-off valves, and other appurtenances. The main purpose of hydrants is to provide water for fire fighting. They also are used for flushing water mains, pressure testing, water sampling, and washing debris off public streets.

      Many types of valves are used to control the quantity and direction of water flow. Gate valves are usually installed throughout the pipe network. They allow sections to be shut off and isolated during the repair of broken mains, pumps, or hydrants. A type of valve commonly used for throttling and controlling the rate of flow is the butterfly valve. Other valves used in water distribution systems include pressure-reducing valves, check valves, and air-release valves.

      Water mains must be placed 3 to 6 feet (91 to 183 cm) below the ground surface to protect against traffic loads and to prevent freezing. Since the water in a distribution system is under pressure, pipelines can follow the shape of the land, uphill as well as downhill. They must be installed with proper bedding and backfill. Compaction of soil layers under the pipe (bedding) as well as above the pipe (backfill) is necessary to provide proper support. A water main should never be installed in the same trench with a sewer line. Where the two must cross, the water main should be placed above the sewer line.

Pumps
      Many kinds of pumps are used in distribution systems. Pumps that lift surface water and move it to a nearby treatment plant are called low-lift pumps. These move large volumes of water at relatively low discharge pressures. Pumps that discharge treated water into arterial mains are called high-lift pumps. These operate under higher pressures. Pumps that increase the pressure within the distribution system or raise water into an elevated storage tank are called booster pumps. Well pumps lift water from underground and discharge it directly into a distribution system.

      Most water distribution pumps are of the centrifugal (centrifugal pump) type, in which a rapidly rotating impeller adds energy to the water and raises the pressure inside the pump casing. The flow rate through a centrifugal pump depends on the pressure against which it operates. The higher the pressure, the lower the flow or discharge. Another kind of pump is the positive-displacement type. This pump delivers a fixed quantity of water with each cycle of a piston or rotor. The water is literally pushed or displaced from the pump casing. The flow capacity of a positive-displacement pump is unaffected by the pressure of the system in which it operates.

Storage tanks
      Distribution storage tanks, familiar sights in many communities, serve two basic purposes: equalizing storage and emergency storage. Equalizing storage is the volume of water needed to satisfy peak hourly demands in the community. During the late night and early morning hours, when water demand is very low, high-lift pumps fill the tank. During the day, when the water demand is high, water flows out of the tank to help satisfy the peak hourly water needs. This allows for a uniform flow rate at the treatment plant and pumping station. The capacity of a distribution storage tank is about equal to the average daily water demand.

      Distribution storage tanks are built at ground level on hilltops higher than the service area. In areas with flat topography, the tanks may be elevated above ground on towers in order to provide adequate water pressures, or ground-level storage tanks with booster pumping may be provided.

Water-pollution control
      Water is called the “universal solvent” because of its strong tendency to dissolve other substances. Since pure water is not found in nature (i.e., outside chemical laboratories), any distinction between clean water and polluted water depends on the type and concentration of impurities found in the water as well as on its intended use. In broad terms, water is said to be polluted when it contains enough impurities to make it unfit for a particular use, such as drinking, swimming, or fishing. Although water quality is affected by natural conditions, the word pollution usually implies human activity as the source of contamination. Water pollution is caused primarily by the drainage of contaminated waters into surface water or groundwater. Water-pollution control, therefore, primarily involves the removal of impurities before they reach natural bodies of water or aquifers.

Historical background
Direct discharge of sewage
      Many ancient cities had drainage systems, but they were primarily intended to carry rainwater away from roofs and pavements. A notable example is the drainage system of ancient Rome. It included many surface conduits that were connected to a large vaulted channel, called the Cloaca Maxima (“Great Sewer”), which carried drainage water to the Tiber River. Built of stone and on a grand scale, the Cloaca Maxima is one of the oldest existing monuments of Roman engineering.

      There was little progress in urban drainage or sewerage during the Middle Ages. Privy vaults and cesspools were used, but most wastes were simply dumped into gutters to be flushed through the drains by floods. Toilets (water closets) were installed in houses in the early 19th century, but they were usually connected to cesspools, not to sewers. In densely populated areas, local conditions soon became intolerable because the cesspools were seldom emptied and frequently overflowed. The threat to public health became apparent. In England in the middle of the 19th century, outbreaks of cholera were traced directly to well-water supplies contaminated with human waste from privy vaults and cesspools. It soon became necessary for all water closets in the larger towns to be connected directly to the storm sewers. This transferred sewage from the ground near houses to nearby bodies of water. Thus, a new problem emerged: surface water pollution.

Developments in sewage treatment (sewage system)
      It used to be said that “the solution to pollution is dilution.” When small amounts of sewage are discharged into a flowing body of water, a natural process of stream self-purification occurs. Densely populated communities generate such large quantities of sewage, however, that dilution alone does not prevent pollution. This makes it necessary to treat or purify wastewater to some degree before disposal.

      The construction of centralized sewage treatment or water-pollution control plants began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, principally in the United Kingdom and the United States. Instead of discharging sewage directly into a nearby body of water, it was first passed through a combination of physical, biological, and chemical processes that removed some or most of the pollutants. Also beginning in the 1900s, new sewage-collection systems were designed to separate storm water from domestic wastewater, so that treatment plants did not become overloaded during periods of wet weather.

      After the middle of the 20th century, increasing public concern for environmental quality led to broader and more stringent regulation of wastewater disposal practices. Higher levels of treatment were required. For example, pretreatment of industrial wastewater, with the aim of preventing toxic chemicals from interfering with the biological processes used at sewage treatment plants, often became a necessity. In fact, wastewater treatment technology advanced to the point where it became possible to remove virtually all pollutants from sewage. This was so expensive, however, that such high levels of treatment were not usually justified.

      Modern water-pollution control plants became large, complex facilities that required considerable amounts of energy for their operation. After the rise of oil prices in the 1970s, concern for energy conservation became a more important factor in the design of new pollution control systems. Consequently, land disposal and subsurface disposal of sewage began to receive increased attention where feasible. Such low-tech pollution control methods not only would help to conserve energy but also would serve to recycle nutrients and replenish groundwater supplies.

Sources of pollution
      Water pollutants may originate from a point source or from a dispersed source. A point-source pollutant is one that reaches water from a single pipeline or channel, such as a sewage discharge or outfall pipe. Dispersed sources are broad, unconfined areas from which pollutants enter a body of water. Surface runoff from farms, for example, is a dispersed source of pollution, carrying animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides, and silt into nearby streams. Urban storm water drainage is also considered a dispersed source because of the many locations at which it enters local streams or lakes. Point-source pollutants are easier to control than dispersed-source pollutants, since they flow to a single location where treatment processes can remove them from the water. Such control is not usually possible over pollutants from dispersed sources, which cause a large part of the overall water-pollution problem. Dispersed-source water pollution is best reduced by enforcing proper land-use plans and development standards.

      General types of water pollutants include pathogenic organisms, oxygen-demanding wastes, plant nutrients, synthetic organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, sediments, radioactive substances, oil, and heat. Sewage is the primary source of the first three types. Farms and industrial facilities are also sources of some of them. Sediment from eroded topsoil is considered a pollutant because it can damage aquatic ecosystems, and heat (particularly from power-plant cooling water) is considered a pollutant because of the adverse effect it has on dissolved oxygen levels and aquatic life in rivers and lakes.

Sewage characteristics
Types of sewage
      There are three types of wastewater, or sewage: domestic sewage, industrial sewage, and storm sewage. Domestic sewage carries used water from houses and apartments; it is also called sanitary sewage. Industrial sewage is used water from manufacturing or chemical processes. Storm sewage, or storm water, is runoff from precipitation that is collected in a system of pipes or open channels.

      Domestic sewage is slightly more than 99.9 percent pure water by weight. The rest, less than 0.1 percent, contains a wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities. Although amounting to a very small fraction of the sewage by weight, the nature of these impurities and the large volumes of sewage in which they are carried make disposal of domestic wastewater a significant technical problem. The principal impurities are putrescible organic materials and plant nutrients, but domestic sewage is also very likely to contain disease-causing microbes. Industrial wastewater usually contains specific and readily identifiable chemical compounds, depending on the nature of the industrial process. Storm sewage carries organic materials, suspended and dissolved solids, and other substances picked up as it travels over the ground.

Principal pollutants

Organic material
      The amount of putrescible organic material in sewage is measured by the biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD; the more organic material there is in the sewage, the higher the BOD. BOD is the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose the organic substances in sewage. It is among the most important parameters for the design and operation of sewage treatment plants. Industrial sewage may have BOD levels many times that of domestic sewage. The BOD of storm sewage is of particular concern when it is mixed with domestic sewage in combined sewer systems.

      Dissolved oxygen is an important water quality factor for lakes and rivers. The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality. When sewage enters a lake or stream, decomposition of the organic materials begins. Oxygen is consumed as microorganisms use it in their metabolism. This can quickly deplete the available oxygen in the water. When the dissolved oxygen levels drop too low, trout and other aquatic species soon perish. In fact, if the oxygen level drops to zero, the water will become septic. Decomposition of organic compounds without oxygen causes the undesirable odours usually associated with septic or putrid conditions.

Suspended solids
      Another important characteristic of sewage is suspended solids. The volume of sludge produced in a treatment plant is directly related to the total suspended solids present in the sewage. Industrial and storm sewage may contain higher concentrations of suspended solids than domestic sewage. The extent to which a treatment plant removes suspended solids, as well as BOD, determines the efficiency of the treatment process.

Plant nutrients
      Domestic sewage contains compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus, two elements that are basic nutrients essential for the growth of plants. In lakes, excessive amounts of nitrates (nitrate) and phosphates (phosphate) can cause the rapid growth of algae. Algal blooms, often caused by sewage discharges, accelerate the natural aging of lakes in a process called eutrophication.

Microbes
      Domestic sewage contains many millions of microorganisms per gallon. Most are harmless coliform bacteria from the human intestinal tract, but domestic sewage is also likely to carry pathogenic microbes. Coliforms are used as indicators of sewage (sewage system) pollution; a high coliform count usually indicates recent sewage pollution.

Wastewater collection systems
      A wastewater collection system is a network of pipes, pumping stations, and appurtenances that convey sewage from its points of origin to a point of treatment and disposal.

Combined systems
      Systems that carry a mixture of both domestic sewage and storm sewage are called combined sewers. Combined sewers typically consist of large-diameter pipes or tunnels, because of the large volumes of storm water that must be carried during wet-weather periods. They are very common in older cities but are no longer designed and built as part of new sewerage facilities. Because wastewater treatment plants cannot handle large volumes of storm water, sewage must bypass the treatment plants during wet weather and be discharged directly into the receiving water. These combined-sewer overflows, containing untreated domestic sewage, cause recurring water-pollution problems and are very troublesome sources of pollution.

      In some large cities, the combined-sewer overflow problem has been reduced by diverting the first flush of combined sewage into a large basin or underground tunnel. After temporary storage, it can be treated by settling and disinfection before being discharged into a receiving body of water, or it can be treated in a nearby wastewater treatment plant at a rate that will not overload the facility. Another method for controlling combined sewage involves the use of swirl concentrators. These direct sewage through cylindrically shaped devices that create a vortex, or whirlpool, effect. The vortex helps concentrate impurities in a much smaller volume of water for treatment.

Separate systems
      New wastewater collection facilities are designed as separate systems, carrying either domestic sewage or storm sewage but not both. Storm sewers usually carry surface runoff to a point of disposal in a stream or river. Small detention basins may be built as part of the system, storing storm water temporarily and reducing the magnitude of the peak flow rate. Sanitary sewers, on the other hand, carry domestic wastewater to a sewage treatment plant. Pretreated industrial wastewater may be allowed into municipal sanitary sewer systems, but storm water is excluded.

      Storm sewers are usually built with sections of reinforced concrete pipe. Corrugated metal pipes may be used in some cases. Storm water inlets or catch basins are located at suitable intervals in a street right-of-way or in easements across private property. The pipelines are usually located to allow downhill gravity flow to a nearby stream or to a detention basin. Storm water pumping stations are avoided, if possible, because of the very large pump capacities that would be needed to handle the intermittent flows.

      A sanitary sewer system (sewage system) includes laterals, submains, and interceptors. Except for individual house connections, laterals are the smallest sewers in the network. They usually are not less than 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter and carry sewage by gravity into larger submains, or collector sewers. The collector sewers tie in to a main interceptor, or trunk line, which carries the sewage to a treatment plant. Interceptors are usually built with precast sections of reinforced concrete pipe, up to 15 feet (5 metres) in diameter. Other materials used for sanitary sewers include vitrified clay, asbestos cement, plastic, steel, or ductile iron. The use of plastic for laterals is increasing because of its lightness and ease of installation. Iron and steel pipes are used for force mains or in pumping stations. (Force mains are pipelines that carry sewage under pressure when it must be pumped.)

Pumps
      Pumping stations are built when sewage must be raised from a low point to a point of higher elevation or where the topography prevents downhill gravity flow. Special nonclogging pumps are available to handle raw sewage. They are installed in structures called lift stations. There are two basic types of lift station: dry well and wet well. A wet-well installation has only one chamber or tank to receive and hold the sewage until it is pumped out. Specially designed submersible pumps and motors can be located at the bottom of the chamber, completely below the water level. Dry-well installations have two separate chambers, one to receive the wastewater and one to enclose and protect the pumps and controls. The protective dry chamber allows easy access for inspection and maintenance. All sewage lift stations, whether of the wet-well or dry-well type, should include at least two pumps. One pump can operate while the other is removed for repair.

Flow rates
      There is a wide variation in sewage flow rates over the course of a day. A sewer system must accommodate this variation. In most cities, domestic sewage flow rates are highest in the morning and evening hours. They are lowest during the middle of the night. Flow quantities depend upon population density, water consumption, and the extent of commercial or industrial activity in the community. The average sewage flow rate is usually about the same as the average water use in the community. In a lateral sewer, short-term peak flow rates can be roughly four times the average flow rate. In a trunk sewer, peak flow rates may be two-and-a-half times the average.

Wastewater treatment and disposal
      The predominant method of wastewater disposal in large cities and towns is discharge into a body of surface water. Suburban and rural areas rely more on subsurface disposal. In either case, wastewater must be purified or treated to some degree, in order to protect both public health and water quality. Suspended particulates and biodegradable organics must be removed to varying extents. Pathogenic bacteria must be destroyed. It may also be necessary to remove nitrates (nitrate) and phosphates (phosphate) (plant nutrients) and to neutralize or remove industrial wastes and toxic chemicals.

      The degree to which wastewater must be treated varies, depending on local environmental conditions and governmental standards. Two pertinent types of standards are stream standards and effluent standards. Stream standards, designed to prevent the deterioration of existing water quality, set limits on the amounts of specific pollutants allowed in streams, rivers, and lakes. The limits depend on a classification of the “maximum beneficial use” of the water. Water quality parameters that are regulated by stream standards include dissolved oxygen, coliforms, turbidity, acidity, and toxic substances. Effluent standards, on the other hand, pertain directly to the quality of the treated wastewater discharged from a sewage treatment plant. The factors controlled under these standards usually include biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, acidity, and coliforms.

      There are three levels of wastewater treatment: primary, secondary, and tertiary (or advanced). Primary treatment removes about 60 percent of total suspended solids and about 35 percent of BOD; dissolved impurities are not removed. It is usually used as a first step before secondary treatment. Secondary treatment removes more than 85 percent of both suspended solids and BOD. A minimum level of secondary treatment is usually required in the United States and other developed countries. When more than 85 percent of total solids and BOD must be removed, or when dissolved nitrate and phosphate levels must be reduced, tertiary treatment methods are used. Tertiary processes can remove more than 99 percent of all the impurities from sewage, producing an effluent of almost drinking-water quality. Tertiary treatment can be very expensive, often doubling the cost of secondary treatment. It is used only under special circumstances.

      For all levels of wastewater treatment, the last step prior to discharge of the sewage effluent into a body of surface water is disinfection. Disinfection is usually accomplished by mixing the effluent with chlorine gas in a contact tank for at least 15 minutes. Because chlorine residuals in the effluent may have adverse effects on aquatic life, an additional chemical may be added to dechlorinate the effluent. ultraviolet radiation, which can disinfect without leaving any residual in the effluent, is becoming more competitive with chlorine as a wastewater disinfectant.

Primary treatment
 Primary treatment removes material that will either float or readily settle out by gravity. It includes the physical processes of screening, comminution, grit removal, and sedimentation (see figure—>). Screens are made of long, closely spaced narrow metal bars. They block floating debris such as wood, rags, and other bulky objects that could clog pipes or pumps. In modern plants the screens are cleaned mechanically, and the material is promptly disposed of by burial on the plant grounds. A comminutor may be used to grind and shred debris that passes through the screens. The shredded material is removed later by sedimentation or flotation processes.

      Grit chambers are long narrow tanks that are designed to slow down the flow so that solids such as sand, coffee grounds, and eggshells will settle out of the water. Grit causes excessive wear and tear on pumps and other plant equipment. Its removal is particularly important in cities with combined sewer systems, which carry a good deal of silt, sand, and gravel that wash off streets or land during a storm.

      Suspended solids that pass through screens and grit chambers are removed from the sewage in sedimentation tanks. These tanks, also called primary clarifiers, provide about two hours of detention time for gravity settling to take place. As the sewage flows through them slowly, the solids gradually sink to the bottom. The settled solids (known as raw or primary sludge) are moved along the tank bottom by mechanical scrapers. Sludge is collected in a hopper, where it is pumped out for removal. Mechanical surface-skimming devices remove grease and other floating materials.

Secondary treatment
      Secondary treatment removes the soluble organic matter that escapes primary treatment. It also removes more of the suspended solids. Removal is usually accomplished by biological processes in which microbes consume the organic impurities as food, converting them into carbon dioxide, water, and energy for their own growth and reproduction. The sewage treatment plant provides a suitable environment, albeit of steel and concrete, for this natural biological process. Removal of soluble organic matter at the treatment plant helps to protect the dissolved oxygen balance of a receiving stream, river, or lake.

      There are three basic biological treatment methods: the trickling filter, the activated sludge process, and the oxidation pond. A fourth, less common method is the rotating biological contacter.

Trickling filter
      A trickling filter is simply a tank filled with a deep bed of stones. Settled sewage is sprayed continuously over the top of the stones and trickles to the bottom, where it is collected for further treatment. As the wastewater trickles down, bacteria gather and multiply on the stones. The steady flow of sewage over these growths allows the microbes to absorb the dissolved organics, thus lowering the BOD of the sewage. Air circulating upward through the spaces among the stones provides sufficient oxygen for the metabolic processes.

      Settling tanks, called secondary clarifiers, follow the trickling filters. These clarifiers remove microbes that are washed off the rocks by the flow of wastewater. Two or more trickling filters may be connected in series, and sewage can be recirculated in order to increase treatment efficiencies.

 The activated sludge treatment system consists of an aeration tank followed by a secondary clarifier. (See figure—>.) Settled sewage, mixed with fresh sludge that is recirculated from the secondary clarifier, is introduced into the aeration tank. Compressed air is then injected into the mixture through porous diffusers located at the bottom of the tank. As it bubbles to the surface, the diffused air provides oxygen and a rapid mixing action. Air can also be added by the churning action of mechanical propeller-like mixers located at the tank surface.

      Under such oxygenated conditions, microorganisms thrive, forming an active, healthy suspension of biological solids (mostly bacteria) called activated sludge. About six hours of detention is provided in the aeration tank. This gives the microbes enough time to absorb dissolved organics from the sewage, reducing the BOD (biochemical oxygen demand). The mixture then flows from the aeration tank into the secondary clarifier, where activated sludge settles out by gravity. Clear water is skimmed from the surface of the clarifier, disinfected, and discharged as secondary effluent. The sludge is pumped out from a hopper at the bottom of the tank. About 30 percent of the sludge is recirculated back into the aeration tank, where it is mixed with the primary effluent. This recirculation is a key feature of the activated sludge process. The recycled microbes are well acclimated to the sewage environment and readily metabolize the organic materials in the primary effluent. The remaining 70 percent of the secondary sludge must be treated and disposed of in an acceptable manner (see Sludge treatment and disposal (environmental works)).

 Variations of the activated sludge process include extended aeration, contact stabilization, and high-purity oxygen aeration. Extended aeration and contact stabilization systems omit the primary settling step. They are efficient for treating small sewage flows from motels, schools, and other relatively isolated wastewater sources. Both of these treatments are usually provided in prefabricated steel tanks called package plants (see figure—>). Oxygen aeration systems mix pure oxygen with activated sludge. A richer concentration of oxygen allows the aeration time to be shortened from six to two hours, reducing the required tank volume.

Oxidation pond
      Oxidation ponds, also called lagoons or stabilization ponds, are large, shallow ponds designed to treat wastewater through the interaction of sunlight, bacteria, and algae. Algae grow using energy from the sun and carbon dioxide and inorganic compounds released by bacteria in water. During the process of photosynthesis, the algae release oxygen needed by aerobic bacteria. Mechanical aerators are sometimes installed to supply yet more oxygen, thereby reducing the required size of the pond. Sludge deposits in the pond must eventually be removed by dredging. Algae remaining in the pond effluent can be removed by filtration or by a combination of chemical treatment and settling.

Rotating biological contacter
      In this treatment system a series of large plastic disks mounted on a horizontal shaft are partially submerged in primary effluent. As the shaft rotates, the disks are exposed alternately to air and wastewater, allowing a layer of bacteria to grow on the disks and to metabolize the organics in the wastewater.

Tertiary treatment
      When the intended receiving water is very vulnerable to the effects of pollution, secondary effluent may be treated further by several tertiary processes.

Effluent polishing
      For the removal of additional suspended solids and BOD from secondary effluent, effluent polishing is an effective treatment. It is most often accomplished using granular media filters, much like the filters used to purify drinking water. Polishing filters are usually built as prefabricated units, with tanks placed directly above the filters for storing backwash water. Effluent polishing of wastewater may also be achieved using microstrainers of the type used in municipal water treatment.

Removal of plant nutrients
      When treatment standards require the removal of plant nutrients from the sewage, it is often done as a tertiary step. phosphorus in wastewater is usually present in the form of organic compounds and phosphates that can easily be removed by chemical precipitation. This process, however, increases the volume and weight of sludge. nitrogen, another important plant nutrient, is present in sewage in the form of ammonia and nitrates. Ammonia is toxic to fish, and it also exerts an oxygen demand in receiving waters as it is converted to nitrates. Nitrates, like phosphates, promote the growth of algae and the eutrophication of lakes. A method called nitrification-denitrification can be used to remove the nitrates. It is a two-step biological process in which ammonia nitrogen is first converted into nitrates by microorganisms. The nitrates are further metabolized by another species of bacteria, forming nitrogen gas that escapes into the air. This process requires the construction of more aeration and settling tanks and significantly increases the cost of treatment.

      A physicochemical process called ammonia stripping may be used to remove ammonia from sewage. Chemicals are added to convert ammonium ions into ammonia gas. The sewage is then cascaded down through a tower, allowing the gas to come out of solution and escape into the air. Stripping is less expensive than nitrification-denitrification, but it does not work very efficiently in cold weather.

Land treatment
      In some locations secondary effluent can be applied directly to the ground and a polished effluent obtained by natural processes as the wastewater flows over vegetation and percolates through the soil. There are three types of land treatment: slow-rate, rapid infiltration, and overland flow.

      In the slow-rate, or irrigation, method, effluent is applied onto the land by ridge-and-furrow spreading (in ditches) or by sprinkler systems. Most of the water and nutrients are absorbed by the roots of growing vegetation. In the rapid infiltration method, the wastewater is stored in large ponds called recharge basins. Most of it percolates to the groundwater, and very little is absorbed by vegetation. For this method to work, soils must be highly permeable. In overland flow, wastewater is sprayed onto an inclined vegetated terrace and slowly flows to a collection ditch. Purification is achieved by physical, chemical, and biological processes, and the collected water is usually discharged into a nearby stream.

      Land treatment of sewage can provide moisture and nutrients for the growth of vegetation, such as corn or grain for animal feed. It also can recharge, or replenish, groundwater aquifers. Land treatment, in effect, allows sewage to be recycled for beneficial use. Large land areas are required, however, and the feasibility of this kind of treatment may be limited further by soil texture and climate.

Subsurface disposal
      In sparsely populated suburban or rural areas, it is usually not economical to build sewage collection systems and a centrally located treatment plant. Instead, a separate subsurface disposal system is provided for each home. For subsurface disposal to succeed, the permeability, or hydraulic conductivity, of the soil must be within an acceptable range. The capacity of the soil to absorb settled wastewater is determined by a “percolation test.”

      A subsurface disposal system consists of a buried septic tank and either a leaching field or seepage pits. A septic tank serves as a settling tank and sludge storage chamber. Although the sludge decomposes anaerobically, it eventually accumulates and must be pumped out periodically. Floating solids and grease are trapped by a baffle at the tank outlet, and settled sewage flows out into the leaching field or seepage pits. A leaching field includes several perforated pipelines placed in shallow trenches. The pipes distribute the effluent over a sizable area as it seeps into the soil. If the site is too small for a conventional leaching field, deeper seepage pits may be used instead of shallow trenches. Both leaching fields and seepage pits must be placed above seasonally high groundwater levels.

Wastewater reuse
      Wastewater can be a valuable resource in cities or towns where population is growing and water supplies are limited. In addition to easing the strain on limited freshwater supplies, the reuse of wastewater can improve the quality of streams and lakes by reducing the effluent discharges that they receive. Wastewater may be reclaimed and reused for crop and landscape irrigation, groundwater recharge, or recreational purposes. Reclamation for drinking is technically possible, but this reuse faces significant public resistance.

      There are two types of wastewater reuse: direct and indirect. In direct reuse, treated wastewater is piped into some type of water system without first being diluted in a natural stream or lake or in groundwater. One example is the irrigation of a golf course with effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Indirect reuse involves the mixing of reclaimed wastewater with another body of water before reuse. In effect, any community that uses a surface water supply downstream from the treatment plant discharge pipe of another community is indirectly reusing wastewater. Indirect reuse is also accomplished by discharging reclaimed wastewater into a groundwater aquifer and later withdrawing the water for use. Discharge into an aquifer (called artificial recharge) is done by either deep-well injection or shallow surface spreading.

      Quality and treatment requirements for reclaimed wastewater become more stringent as the chances for direct human contact and ingestion increase. The impurities that must be removed depend on the intended use of the water. For example, removal of phosphates or nitrates is not necessary if the intended use is landscape irrigation. If direct reuse as a potable supply is intended, tertiary treatment with multiple barriers against contaminants is required. This may include secondary treatment followed by granular media filtration, ultraviolet radiation, granular activated carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis, air stripping, ozonation, and chlorination.

      The use of gray-water recycling systems in new commercial buildings offers a method of saving water and reducing total sewage volumes. These systems filter and chlorinate drainage from tubs and sinks and reuse the water for nonpotable purposes (e.g., flushing toilets and urinals). Recycled water can be marked with a blue dye to ensure that it is not used for potable purposes.

Sludge treatment and disposal (sludge)
Characteristics
      The residue that accumulates in sewage treatment plants is called sludge. Treatment and disposal of sewage sludge are major factors in the design and operation of all water-pollution control plants. Two basic goals of treating sludge before final disposal are to reduce its volume and to stabilize the organic materials. Stabilized sludge does not have an offensive odour and can be handled without causing a nuisance or health hazard. Smaller sludge volume reduces the costs of pumping and storage.

Treatment methods
      Treatment of sewage sludge may include a combination of thickening, digestion, dewatering, and disposal processes.

      Thickening is usually the first step in sludge treatment because it is impractical to handle thin sludge, a slurry of solids suspended in water. Thickening is usually accomplished in a tank called a gravity thickener. A thickener can reduce the total volume of sludge to less than half the original volume. An alternative to gravity thickening is dissolved-air flotation. In this method air bubbles carry the solids to the surface, where a layer of thickened sludge forms.

      Sludge digestion is a biological process in which organic solids are decomposed into stable substances. Digestion reduces the total mass of solids, destroys pathogens, and makes it easier to dewater or dry the sludge. Digested sludge is inoffensive, having the appearance and characteristics of a rich potting soil.

      Most large sewage treatment plants use a two-stage digestion system in which organics are metabolized by bacteria anaerobically (in the absence of oxygen). In the first stage the sludge is heated and mixed in a closed tank for about 15 days, while digestion takes place. The sludge then flows into a second tank, which serves primarily for storage and settling. As the organic solids are broken down by anaerobic bacteria, carbon dioxide gas and methane gas are formed. Methane is combustible and is used as a fuel to heat the first digestion tank as well as to generate electricity for the plant. Anaerobic digestion is very sensitive to temperature, acidity, and other factors. It requires careful monitoring and control.

      Sludge digestion may also take place aerobically—that is, in the presence of oxygen. The sludge is vigorously aerated in an open tank for about 20 days. Methane gas is not formed in this process. Although aerobic systems are easier to operate than anaerobic systems, they usually cost more to operate because of the power needed for aeration. Aerobic digestion is often combined with small extended aeration or contact stabilization systems.

      Both aerobic and anaerobic digestion convert about half of the organic sludge solids to liquids and gases.

Dewatering
      Digested sewage sludge is usually dewatered before disposal. Dewatered sludge still contains a significant amount of water—often as much as 70 percent—but, even with that moisture content, sludge no longer behaves as a liquid and can be handled as a solid material. Sludge-drying beds provide the simplest method of dewatering. A digested sludge slurry is spread on an open bed of sand and allowed to remain until dry. Drying takes place by a combination of evaporation and gravity drainage through the sand. A piping network built under the sand collects the water, which is pumped back to the head of the plant. After about six weeks of drying, the sludge cake, as it is called, may have a solids content of about 40 percent. It can then be removed from the sand with a pitchfork or a front-end loader. In order to reduce drying time in wet or cold weather, a glass enclosure may be built over the sand beds. Since a good deal of land area is needed for drying beds, this method of dewatering is commonly used in rural or suburban towns rather than in densely populated cities.

      Alternatives to sludge-drying beds include the rotary drum vacuum filter, the centrifuge, and the belt filter press. These mechanical systems require less space than do sludge-drying beds, and they offer a greater degree of operational control. However, they usually have to be preceded by a step called sludge conditioning, in which chemicals are added to the liquid sludge to coagulate solids and improve drainability.

      The final destination of treated sewage sludge usually is the land. Dewatered sludge can be buried underground in a sanitary landfill. It also may be spread on agricultural land in order to make use of its value as a soil conditioner and fertilizer. Since sludge may contain toxic industrial chemicals, it is not spread on land where crops are grown for human consumption.

      Where a suitable site for land disposal is not available, as in urban areas, sludge may be incinerated (incinerator). Incineration completely evaporates the moisture and converts the organic solids into inert ash. The ash must be disposed of, but the reduced volume makes disposal more economical. Air-pollution control is a very important consideration when sewage sludge is incinerated. Appropriate air-cleaning devices such as scrubbers and filters must be used.

      Dumping of sludge in the ocean, once an economical disposal method for many coastal communities, is no longer considered a viable option. It is now prohibited in the United States.

Solid-waste management
      Material that is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful is called solid waste. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to pollution of the environment and to outbreaks of vector-borne disease (that is, diseases spread by rodents and insects). The tasks of collecting, treating, and disposing of solid waste present complex technical challenges. They also pose a wide variety of administrative, economic, and social problems that must be managed and solved.

Historical background
Early waste disposal (waste disposal)
      In ancient cities wastes were thrown into the unpaved streets and roadways, where they were left to accumulate. It was not until 320 BC, in Athens, that the first known law forbidding this practice was established. At that time a system for waste removal began to evolve in Greece and in the Greek-dominated cities of the eastern Mediterranean. In ancient Rome property owners were responsible for cleaning the streets fronting their property. But organized waste collection was associated only with state-sponsored events, such as parades. Disposal methods were very crude, involving open pits located just outside the city walls. As populations increased, efforts were made to transport waste farther out from the cities.

      After the fall of Rome, waste collection and municipal sanitation began a decline that lasted throughout the Middle Ages. Near the end of the 14th century, scavengers were given the task of carting waste to dumps outside city walls. But this was not the case in smaller towns, where most people still threw waste into the streets. It was not until 1714 that every city in England was required to have an official scavenger. Toward the end of the 18th century in America, municipal collection of garbage was begun in Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia. Waste disposal methods were still very crude, however. Garbage collected in Philadelphia, for example, was simply dumped into the Delaware River downstream from the city.

Developments in waste management
      A technological approach to solid-waste management began to develop in the latter part of the 19th century. Watertight garbage cans were first introduced in the United States, and sturdier vehicles were used to collect and transport wastes. A significant development in solid-waste treatment and disposal practices was marked by the construction of the first refuse incinerator in England in 1874. By the beginning of the 20th century, 15 percent of major American cities were incinerating solid waste. Even then, however, most of the largest cities were still using primitive disposal methods such as open dumping on land or in water.

      Technological advances continued during the first half of the 20th century, including the development of garbage grinders, compaction trucks, and pneumatic collection systems. By mid-century, however, it had become evident that open dumping and improper incineration of solid waste were causing problems of pollution and public health. As a result, sanitary landfills (sanitary landfill) were developed to replace the practice of open dumping and to reduce the reliance on waste incineration. In many countries waste was divided into two categories, hazardous and nonhazardous, and separate regulations were developed for their disposal. Landfills were designed and operated in a manner that minimized risks to public health and the environment. New refuse incinerators were designed to recover heat energy from the waste and were provided with extensive air-pollution control devices to satisfy stringent standards of air quality. Modern solid-waste management plants in most developed countries now emphasize the practice of recycling and waste reduction at the source, rather than incineration and land disposal.

Solid-waste characteristics
Composition and properties
      The sources of solid waste include residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial activities. Certain types of wastes that cause immediate danger to exposed individuals or environments are classified as hazardous; these are discussed separately in Hazardous-waste management (environmental works). All nonhazardous solid waste from a community that requires collection and transport to a processing or disposal site is called refuse (refuse disposal system) or municipal solid waste. Refuse includes garbage and rubbish. Garbage is mostly decomposable food waste; rubbish is mostly dry material such as glass, paper, cloth, or wood. Garbage is highly putrescible or decomposable, whereas rubbish is not. Trash is rubbish that includes bulky items such as old refrigerators, couches, or large tree stumps. Trash requires special collection and handling.

      Solid-waste characteristics vary considerably among communities and nations. American refuse is usually lighter, for example, than European or Japanese refuse. In the United States paper and paperboard products make up close to 40 percent of the total weight of municipal solid waste; food waste accounts for less than 10 percent. The rest is a mixture of yard trimmings, wood, glass, metal, plastic, leather, cloth, and other miscellaneous materials. In a loose or uncompacted state, municipal solid waste of this type weighs approximately 200 pounds per cubic yard (120 kg per cubic metre). These figures vary with geographic location, economic conditions, season of the year, and many other factors. Waste characteristics from each community must be studied carefully before any treatment or disposal facility is designed and built.

Generation and storage
      Rates of solid-waste generation vary widely. In the United States, for example, municipal refuse is generated at an average rate of approximately 4.4 pounds (2 kg) per person per day. Japan generates roughly half this amount, yet in Canada the rate is almost 7 pounds (3 kg) per person per day. In some developing countries (e.g., India) the average rate can be lower than 1 pound (0.5 kg) per person per day. These data include refuse from commercial, institutional, and industrial sources, as well as from residential sources. The actual rates of refuse generation must be carefully determined when a community plans a solid-waste management project.

      Most communities require household refuse to be stored in durable, easily cleaned containers with tight-fitting covers in order to minimize rodent or insect infestation and offensive odours. Galvanized metal or plastic containers of about 30-gallon (115-litre) capacity are commonly used, although some communities employ larger containers that can be lifted mechanically and emptied into collection trucks. Plastic bags are frequently used as liners or as disposable containers for curbside collection. Where large quantities of refuse are generated—such as at shopping centres, hotels, or apartment buildings—dumpsters may be used for temporary storage until the waste is collected. Some office and commercial buildings use on-site compactors to reduce the waste volume.

Solid-waste collection
Collecting and transporting
      Proper solid-waste collection is important for the protection of public health, safety, and environmental quality. It is a labour-intensive activity, accounting for approximately three-quarters of the total cost of solid-waste management. Public employees are often assigned to the task, but sometimes it is more economical for private companies to do the work under contract to the municipality or for private collectors to be paid by individual homeowners. A driver and one or two loaders serve each collection vehicle. These are typically trucks of the enclosed, compacting type, with capacities up to 40 cubic yards (30 cubic metres). Loading can be done from the front, rear, or side. Compaction reduces the volume of refuse in the truck to less than half of its loose volume.

      The task of selecting an optimal collection route is a complex problem, especially for large and densely populated cities. An optimal route is one that results in the most efficient use of labour and equipment, and selecting such a route requires the application of computer analyses that account for all the many design variables in a large and complex network. Variables include frequency of collection, haulage distance, type of service, and climate. Collection of refuse in rural areas can present a special problem, since the population densities are low, leading to high unit costs.

      Refuse collection usually occurs at least once per week because of the rapid decomposition of food waste. The amount of garbage in the refuse of an individual home can be reduced by garbage grinders, or garbage disposals. Ground garbage puts an extra load on sewerage systems, but this can usually be accommodated. Many communities now conduct source separation and recycling programs, in which homeowners and businesses separate recyclable materials from garbage and place them in separate containers for collection. In addition, some communities have drop-off centres where residents can bring recyclables.

Transfer stations
      If the final destination of the refuse is not near the community in which it is generated, one or more transfer stations may be necessary. A transfer station is a central facility where refuse from many collection vehicles is combined into a larger vehicle, such as a tractor-trailer unit. Open-top trailers are designed to carry about 100 cubic yards (76 cubic metres) of uncompacted waste to a regional processing or disposal location. Closed compactor-type trailers are also available, but they must be equipped with ejector mechanisms. In a direct discharge type of station, several collection trucks empty directly into the transport vehicle. In a storage discharge type of station, refuse is first emptied into a storage pit or onto a platform, and then machinery is used to hoist or push the solid waste into the transport vehicle. Large transfer stations can handle more than 500 tons of refuse per day.

Solid-waste treatment
      Once collected, municipal solid waste may be treated in order to reduce the total volume and weight of material that requires final disposal. Treatment changes the form of the waste and makes it easier to handle. It can also serve to recover certain materials, as well as heat energy, for recycling or reuse.

Furnace operation
      Burning is a very effective method of reducing the volume and weight of solid waste. In modern incinerators the waste is burned inside a properly designed furnace under very carefully controlled conditions. The combustible portion of the waste combines with oxygen, releasing mostly carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat. Incineration can reduce the volume of uncompacted waste by more than 90 percent, leaving an inert residue of ash, glass, metal, and other solid materials called bottom ash. The gaseous by-products of incomplete combustion, along with finely divided particulate material called fly ash, are carried along in the incinerator airstream. Fly ash includes cinders, dust, and soot. In order to remove fly ash and gaseous by-products before they are exhausted into the atmosphere, modern incinerators must be equipped with extensive emission control devices. Such devices include fabric baghouse filters, acid gas scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators. Bottom ash and fly ash are usually combined and disposed of in a landfill. If the ash is found to contain toxic metals, it must be managed as a hazardous waste.

      Municipal solid-waste incinerators are designed to receive and burn a continuous supply of refuse. A deep refuse storage pit, or tipping area, provides enough space for about one day of waste storage. The refuse is lifted from the pit by a crane equipped with a bucket or grapple device. It is then deposited into a hopper and chute above the furnace and released onto a charging grate or stoker. The grate shakes and moves waste through the furnace, allowing air to circulate around the burning material. Modern incinerators are usually built with a rectangular furnace, although rotary kiln furnaces and vertical circular furnaces are available. Furnaces are constructed of refractory bricks that can withstand the high combustion temperatures.

      Combustion in a furnace occurs in two stages: primary and secondary. In primary combustion, moisture is driven off, and the waste is ignited and volatilized. In secondary combustion, the remaining unburned gases and particulates are oxidized, eliminating odours and reducing the amount of fly ash in the exhaust. When the refuse is very moist, auxiliary gas or fuel oil is sometimes burned to start the primary combustion.

      In order to provide enough oxygen for both primary and secondary combustion, air must be thoroughly mixed with the burning refuse. Air is supplied from openings beneath the grates or is admitted to the area above. The relative amounts of this underfire air and overfire air must be determined by the plant operator to achieve good combustion efficiency. A continuous flow of air can be maintained by a natural draft in a tall chimney or by mechanical forced-draft fans.

Energy recovery
      The energy value of refuse can be as much as one-third that of coal, depending on the paper content, and the heat given off during incineration can be recovered by the use of a refractory-lined furnace coupled to a boiler. Boilers convert the heat of combustion into steam or hot water, thus allowing the energy content of the refuse to be recycled. Incinerators that recycle heat energy in this way are called waste-to-energy plants. Instead of a separate furnace and boiler, a water-tube wall furnace may also be used for energy recovery. Such a furnace is lined with vertical steel tubes spaced closely enough to form continuous sections of wall. The walls are insulated on the outside in order to reduce heat loss. Water circulating through the tubes absorbs heat to produce steam, and it also helps to control combustion temperatures without the need for excessive air, thus lowering air-pollution control costs.

      Waste-to-energy plants operate as either mass burn or refuse-derived fuel systems. A mass burn system uses all the refuse, without prior treatment or preparation. A refuse-derived fuel system separates combustible wastes from noncombustibles such as glass and metal before burning. If a turbine is installed at the plant, both steam and electricity can be produced in a process called cogeneration.

      Waste-to-energy systems are more expensive to build and operate than plain incinerators because of the need for special equipment and controls, highly skilled technical personnel, and auxiliary fuel systems. On the other hand, the sale of generated steam or electricity offsets much of the extra cost, and recovery of heat energy from refuse is a viable solid-waste management option from both an engineering and an economic point of view. About 80 percent of municipal refuse incinerators in the United States are waste-to-energy facilities.

Composting
      Another method of treating municipal solid waste is composting, a biological process in which the organic portion of refuse is allowed to decompose under carefully controlled conditions. Microbes metabolize the organic waste material and reduce its volume by as much as 50 percent. The stabilized product is called compost or humus; it resembles potting soil in texture and odour and may be used as a soil conditioner or mulch.

      Composting offers a method of processing and recycling both garbage and sewage sludge in one operation. As more stringent environmental rules and siting constraints limit the use of solid-waste incineration and landfill options, the application of composting is likely to increase. The steps involved in the process include sorting and separating, size reduction, and digestion of the refuse.

Sorting and shredding
      The decomposable materials in refuse are isolated from glass, metal, and other inorganic items through sorting and separating operations. These are carried out mechanically, using differences in such physical characteristics of the refuse as size, density, and magnetic properties. Shredding or pulverizing reduces the size of the waste articles, resulting in a uniform mass of material. It is accomplished with hammermills and rotary shredders.

Digesting and processing
      Pulverized waste is ready for composting either by the open windrow method or in an enclosed mechanical facility. Windrows are long, low mounds of refuse. They are turned or mixed every few days to provide air for the microbes digesting the organics. Depending on moisture conditions, it may take five to eight weeks for complete digestion of the waste. Because of the metabolic action of aerobic bacteria, temperatures in an active compost pile reach about 150 °F (65 °C), killing pathogenic organisms that may be in the waste material.

      Open windrow composting requires relatively large land areas. Enclosed mechanical composting facilities can reduce land requirements by about 85 percent. Mechanical composting systems employ one or more closed tanks or digesters equipped with rotating vanes that mix and aerate the shredded waste. Complete digestion of the waste takes about one week.

      Digested compost must be processed before it can be used as a mulch or soil conditioner. Processing includes drying, screening, and granulating or pelletizing. These steps improve the market value of the compost, which is the most serious constraint to the success of composting as a waste management option. Agricultural demand for digested compost is usually low because of the high cost of transporting it and because of competition with inorganic chemical fertilizers.

      Land disposal is the most common management strategy for municipal solid waste. Refuse can be safely deposited in a sanitary landfill, a disposal site that is carefully selected, designed, constructed, and operated to protect the environment and public health. One of the most important factors relating to landfilling is that the buried waste never comes in contact with surface water or groundwater. Engineering design requirements include a minimum distance between the bottom of the landfill and the seasonally high groundwater table. Most new landfills are required to have an impermeable liner or barrier at the bottom, as well as a system of groundwater monitoring wells. Completed landfill sections also must be capped with an impermeable cover to keep precipitation or surface runoff away from the buried waste. Bottom and cap liners may be made of flexible plastic membranes, layers of clay soil, or a combination of both.

Constructing the landfill
 The basic element of a sanitary landfill is the refuse cell. This is a confined portion of the site in which refuse is spread and compacted in thin layers; several layers may be compacted on top of one another to a maximum depth of about 10 feet (3 metres). The compacted refuse occupies about one-quarter of its original loose volume. At the end of each day's operation, the refuse is covered with a layer of soil to eliminate windblown litter, odours, and insect or rodent problems. One refuse cell thus contains the daily volume of compacted refuse and soil cover. Several adjacent refuse cells make up a lift, and eventually a landfill may comprise two or more lifts stacked one on top of the other. The final cap for a completed landfill may also be covered with a layer of topsoil that can support vegetative growth.

      Daily cover soil may be available on-site, or it may be hauled in and stockpiled from off-site sources. Various types of heavy machinery, such as crawler tractors or rubber-tired dozers, are used to spread and compact the refuse and soil. Heavy steel-wheeled compactors may also be employed to achieve high-density compaction of the refuse.

      The area and depth of a new landfill is carefully staked out, and the base is prepared for construction of any required liner and leachate collection system. Where a plastic liner is used, at least 12 inches (30 cm) of sand is carefully spread over it to provide protection from landfill vehicles. At sites where excavations can be made below grade, the trench method of construction may be followed. Where this is not feasible because of topography or groundwater conditions, the area method may be practiced, resulting in a mound or hill rising above the original ground. Since no ground is excavated in the area method, soil usually must be hauled to the site from some other location. Variations of the area method may be employed where a landfill site is located on sloping ground, in a valley, or in a ravine; the completed landfill eventually blends in with the landscape.

Controlling by-products
      Organic material buried in a landfill decomposes by anaerobic microbial action. Complete decomposition usually takes more than 20 years. One of the by-products of this decomposition is methane gas. Methane is poisonous and explosive when diluted in the air, and it can flow long distances through porous layers of soil. If it is allowed to collect in basements or other confined areas, dangerous conditions may arise. In modern landfills methane movement is controlled by impermeable barriers and by gas venting systems. In some landfills the methane gas is collected and recovered for use as a fuel.

      A highly contaminated liquid called leachate is another by-product of decomposition in sanitary landfills. Most leachate is the result of runoff that infiltrates the refuse cells and comes in contact with decomposing garbage. If leachate reaches the groundwater or seeps out onto the ground surface, serious environmental pollution problems can occur, including the possible contamination of drinking-water supplies. Methods of controlling leachate include the interception of surface water in order to prevent it from entering the landfill and the use of impermeable liners or barriers between the waste and the groundwater. New landfill sites should also be provided with groundwater monitoring wells and leachate collection and treatment systems.

Importance in waste management
      In communities where appropriate sites are available, sanitary landfills usually provide the most economical option for disposal of nonrecyclable refuse. However, it is becoming increasingly difficult to find sites that offer adequate capacity, accessibility, and environmental conditions. Nevertheless, landfills will always play a key role in solid-waste management. It is not possible to recycle all components of solid waste, and there will always be residues from incineration and other treatment processes that will eventually require disposal underground. In addition, landfills can actually improve poor-quality land. In some communities properly completed landfills are converted into recreational parks, playgrounds, or golf courses.

      Separating, recovering, and reusing components of solid waste that may still have economic value is called recycling. One type of recycling is the recovery and reuse of heat energy, a practice discussed separately in Incineration (environmental works). Composting can also be considered a recycling process, since it reclaims the organic parts of solid waste for reuse as mulch or soil conditioner. Still other waste materials have potential for reuse. These include paper, metal, glass, plastic, and rubber, and their recovery is discussed here.

      Before any material can be recycled, it must be separated from the raw waste and sorted. Separation can be accomplished at the source of the waste or at a central processing facility. Source separation, also called curbside separation, is done by individual citizens who collect newspapers, bottles, cans, and garbage separately and place them at the curb for collection. Many communities allow “commingling” of nonpaper recyclables (glass, metal, and plastic). In either case, municipal collection of source-separated refuse is more expensive than ordinary refuse collection.

      In lieu of source separation, recyclable materials can be separated from garbage at centralized mechanical processing plants. Experience has shown that the quality of recyclables recovered from such facilities is lowered by contamination with moist garbage and broken glass. The best practice, as now recognized, is to have citizens separate refuse into a limited number of categories, including newspaper; magazines and other wastepaper; commingled metals, glass, and plastics; and garbage and other nonrecyclables. The newspaper, other paper wastes, and commingled recyclables are collected separately from the other refuse and are processed at a centralized material recycling facility, or MRF (pronounced “murf” in waste-management jargon). A modern MRF can process about 300 tons of recyclable wastes per day.

      At a typical MRF commingled recyclables are loaded onto a conveyor. Steel cans (“tin” cans are actually steel with only a thin coating of tin) are removed by an electromagnetic separator, and the remaining material passes over a vibrating screen in order to remove broken glass. Next, the conveyor passes through an air classifier, which separates aluminum and plastic containers from heavier glass containers. Glass is manually sorted by colour, and aluminum cans are separated from plastics by an eddy-current separator, which repels the aluminum from the conveyor belt.

      Recovered broken glass can be crushed and used in asphalt pavement. Colour-sorted glass is crushed and sold to glass manufacturers as cullet, an essential ingredient in glassmaking. Steel cans are baled and shipped to steel mills as scrap, and aluminum (aluminum processing) is baled or compacted for reuse by smelters. Aluminum is one of the smallest components of municipal solid waste, but it has the highest value as a recyclable material. Recycling of plastic is a challenge, mostly because of the many different polymeric materials used in its production. Mixed thermoplastics can be used only to make lower-quality products, such as “plastic lumber.”

      In the paper stream, old newspapers are sorted by hand on a conveyor belt in order to remove corrugated materials and mixed papers. They are then baled or loose-loaded into trailers for shipment to paper mills, where they are reused in the making of more newspaper. Mixed paper is separated from corrugated paper for sale to tissue mills. Although the processes of pulping, de-inking, and screening wastepaper are generally more expensive than making paper from virgin wood fibres, the market for recycled paper should improve as more processing plants are established.

       rubber is sometimes reclaimed from solid waste and shredded, reformed, and remolded in a process called revulcanization, but it is usually not as strong as the original material. Shredded rubber can be used as an additive in asphalt pavements, and discarded tires may be employed in “tire playgrounds.” In general, the most difficult problem associated with the recycling of any solid-waste material is finding applications and suitable markets. Recycling by itself will not solve the growing problem of solid-waste management and disposal. There will always be some unusable and completely valueless solid residue requiring final disposal.

Hazardous-waste management
      Hazardous waste is any waste material that, when improperly handled, can cause substantial harm to human health and safety or to the environment. Hazardous wastes can take the form of solids, liquids, sludges, or contained gases, and they are generated primarily by chemical production, manufacturing, and other industrial activities. They may cause damage during inadequate storage, transportation, treatment, or disposal operations. Improper waste storage or disposal frequently contaminates surface and groundwater supplies. People living in homes built near old and abandoned waste disposal sites may be in a particularly vulnerable position. In an effort to remedy existing problems and to prevent future harm from hazardous wastes, governments closely regulate the practice of hazardous-waste management.

Hazardous-waste characteristics
      Hazardous wastes are classified on the basis of their biological, chemical, and physical properties. These properties generate materials that are either toxic, reactive, ignitable, corrosive, infectious, or radioactive.

      Toxic wastes are poisons, even in very small or trace amounts. They may have acute effects, causing death or violent illness, or they may have chronic effects, slowly causing irreparable harm. Some are carcinogenic, causing cancer after many years of exposure. Others are mutagenic, causing major biological changes in the offspring of exposed humans and wildlife.

      Reactive wastes are chemically unstable and react violently with air or water. They cause explosions or form toxic vapours. Ignitable wastes burn at relatively low temperatures and may cause an immediate fire hazard. Corrosive wastes include strong acidic or alkaline substances. They destroy solid material and living tissue upon contact, by chemical reaction.

      Infectious wastes include used bandages, hypodermic needles, and other materials from hospitals or biological research facilities. Radioactive wastes emit ionizing energy that can harm living organisms. Because some radioactive materials can persist in the environment for many thousands of years before fully decaying, there is much concern over the control of these wastes. However, the handling and disposal of radioactive material is not a responsibility of local municipal government. Owing to the scope and complexity of the problem, the management of radioactive waste (particularly nuclear fission waste) is usually considered to be a separate engineering task from other forms of hazardous-waste management and is discussed separately in nuclear reactor.

Transport of hazardous waste
      Hazardous waste generated at a particular site often requires transport to an approved treatment, storage, or disposal facility (TSDF). Because of potential threats to public safety and the environment, transport is given special attention by governmental agencies. In addition to the occasional accidental spill, hazardous waste has, in the past, been intentionally spilled or abandoned at random locations in a practice known as “midnight dumping.” This practice has been greatly curtailed by the enactment of laws that require proper labeling, transport, and tracking of all hazardous wastes.

Transport vehicles
      Hazardous waste is generally transported by truck over public highways. Only a very small amount is transported by rail, and almost none is moved by air or inland waterway. Highway shipment is the most common because road vehicles can gain access to most industrial sites and approved TSDFs. Railroad trains require expensive siding facilities and are suitable only for very large waste shipments.

      Hazardous wastes can be shipped in tank trucks made of steel or aluminum alloy, with capacities up to about 9,000 gallons (34,000 litres). They also can be containerized and shipped in 55-gallon (200-litre) drums. Specifications and standards for cargo tank trucks and shipping containers are included in governmental regulations.

The manifest system
      In the United States a key feature of regulations pertaining to waste transport is the “cradle-to-grave” manifest system, which monitors the journey of hazardous waste from its point of origin to the point of final disposal. The manifest system helps to eliminate the problem of midnight dumping. It also provides a means for determining the type and quantity of hazardous waste being generated, as well as the recommended emergency procedures in case of an accidental spill. A manifest is a record-keeping document that must be prepared by the generator of the hazardous waste, such as a chemical manufacturer. The generator has primary responsibility for the ultimate disposal of the waste and must give the manifest, along with the waste itself, to a licensed waste transporter. A copy of the manifest must be delivered by the transporter to the recipient of the waste at an authorized TSDF. Each time the waste changes hands, a copy of the manifest must be signed. Copies of the manifest are kept by each party involved, and additional copies are sent to appropriate environmental agencies.

      In the event of a leak or accidental spill of hazardous waste during its transport, the transporter must take immediate and appropriate actions, including notifying local authorities of the discharge. An area may have to be diked to contain the wastes, and efforts must be undertaken to remove the wastes and reduce environmental or public health hazards.

Treatment, storage, and disposal
      Several options are available for hazardous-waste management. The most desirable is to reduce the quantity of waste at its source or to recycle the materials for some other productive use. Nevertheless, while reduction and recycling are desirable options, they are not regarded as the final remedy to the problem of hazardous-waste disposal. There will always be a need for treatment and for storage or disposal of some amount of hazardous waste.

      Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical methods. Chemical methods include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and neutralization. Among thermal methods is high-temperature incineration, which can not only detoxify certain organic wastes but also destroy them. Special types of thermal equipment are used for burning waste in either a solid, liquid, or sludge form. These include the fluidized-bed incinerator, multiple-hearth furnace, rotary kiln, and liquid-injection incinerator. One problem posed by hazardous-waste incineration is the potential for air pollution.

      Biological treatment of certain organic wastes, such as those from the petroleum industry, is also an option. One method used to treat hazardous waste biologically is called landfarming. In this technique the waste is carefully mixed with surface soil on a suitable tract of land. Microbes that can metabolize the waste may be added, along with nutrients. In some cases, a genetically engineered species of bacteria is used. Food or forage crops are not grown on the same site. Microbes can also be used for stabilizing hazardous wastes on previously contaminated sites; in that case the process is called bioremediation.

      The chemical, thermal, and biological treatment methods outlined above change the molecular form of the waste material. Physical treatment, on the other hand, concentrates, solidifies, or reduces the volume of the waste. Physical processes include evaporation, sedimentation, flotation, and filtration. Yet another process is solidification, which is achieved by encapsulating the waste in concrete, asphalt, or plastic. Encapsulation produces a solid mass of material that is resistant to leaching. Waste can also be mixed with lime, fly ash, and water to form a solid, cementlike product.

Surface storage and land disposal
      Hazardous wastes that are not destroyed by incineration or other chemical processes need to be disposed of properly. For most of such wastes, land disposal is the ultimate destination, although it is not an attractive practice because of the inherent environmental risks involved. Two basic methods of land disposal include landfilling and underground injection. Prior to land disposal, surface storage or containment systems are often employed as a temporary method.

      Temporary on-site waste storage facilities include open waste piles and ponds or lagoons. New waste piles must be carefully constructed over an impervious base and must comply with regulatory requirements similar to those for landfills. The piles must be protected from wind dispersion or erosion. If leachate is generated, monitoring and control systems must be provided. Only noncontainerized solid, nonflowing waste material can be stored in a new waste pile, and the material must be landfilled when the size of the pile becomes unmanageable.

      A common type of temporary storage impoundment for hazardous liquid waste is an open pit or holding pond, called a lagoon. New lagoons must be lined with impervious clay soils and flexible membrane liners in order to protect groundwater. Leachate collection systems must be installed between the liners, and groundwater monitoring wells are required. Except for some sedimentation, evaporation of volatile organics, and possibly some surface aeration, open lagoons provide no treatment of the waste. Accumulated sludge must be removed periodically and subjected to further handling as a hazardous waste.

      Many older, unlined waste piles and lagoons are located above aquifers used for public water supply, thus posing significant risks to public health and environmental quality. A large number of these old sites have been identified and scheduled for cleanup, or remediation.

Secure landfills
 Landfilling of hazardous solid or containerized waste is regulated more stringently than landfilling of municipal solid waste. Hazardous wastes must be deposited in so-called secure landfills (see figure—>), which provide at least 10 feet (3 metres) of separation between the bottom of the landfill and the underlying bedrock or groundwater table. A secure hazardous-waste landfill must have two impermeable liners and leachate collection systems. The double leachate collection system consists of a network of perforated pipes placed above each liner. The upper system prevents the accumulation of leachate trapped in the fill, and the lower serves as a backup. Collected leachate is pumped to a treatment plant. In order to reduce the amount of leachate in the fill and minimize the potential for environmental damage, an impermeable cap or cover is placed over a finished landfill. A groundwater monitoring system that includes a series of deep wells drilled in and around the site is also required. The wells allow a routine program of sampling and testing to detect any leaks or groundwater contamination. If a leak does occur, the wells can be pumped to intercept the polluted water and bring it to the surface for treatment.

      One option for the disposal of liquid hazardous waste is deep-well injection, a procedure that involves pumping liquid waste through a steel casing into a porous layer of limestone or sandstone. High pressures are applied to force the liquid into the pores and fissures of the rock, where it is to be permanently stored. The injection zone must lie below a layer of impervious rock or clay, and it may extend more than 0.5 mile (0.8 km) below the surface. Deep-well injection is relatively inexpensive and requires little or no pretreatment of the waste, but it poses a danger of leaking hazardous waste and eventually polluting subsurface water supplies.

Remedial action
      Disposal of hazardous waste in unlined pits, ponds, or lagoons poses a threat to human health and environmental quality. Many such uncontrolled disposal sites were used in the past and have been abandoned; depending on a determination of the level of risk, it may be necessary to remediate these sites. In some cases, the risk may require emergency action. In other instances, engineering studies may be required to assess the situation thoroughly before remedial action is undertaken.

      One option for remediation is to remove completely all the waste material from the site and transport it to another location for treatment and proper disposal. This so-called off-site solution is usually the most expensive option. An alternative is on-site remediation, which reduces the production of leachate and lessens the chance of groundwater contamination. On-site remediation may include temporary removal of the hazardous waste, construction of a secure landfill on the same site, and proper replacement of the waste. It may also include treatment of any contaminated soil or groundwater. Treated soil may be replaced on-site and treated groundwater returned to the aquifer by deep-well injection.

      A less costly alternative is full containment of the waste. This is done by placing an impermeable cover over the hazardous-waste site and by blocking the lateral flow of groundwater with subsurface cutoff walls. It is possible to use cutoff walls for this purpose when there is a natural layer of impervious soil or rock below the site. The walls are constructed around the perimeter of the site, deep enough to penetrate to the impervious layer. They can be excavated as trenches around the site without moving or disturbing the waste material. The trenches are filled with a bentonite clay slurry to prevent their collapse during construction, and they are backfilled with a mixture of soil and cement that solidifies to form an impermeable barrier. Cutoff walls thus serve as vertical barriers to the flow of water, and the impervious layer serves as a barrier at the bottom.

Air-pollution control
      Clean air, an essential component of a healthful environment, is a mixture of many different gases. Two gases predominate: nitrogen, which makes up 78 percent of the volume of clean dry air, and oxygen, which makes up 21 percent. Argon, an inert element, accounts for almost 1 percent of clean dry air, and the remainder includes very small or trace concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen, helium, ozone, and other gases. In the Earth's atmosphere, water vapour is also a significant component but the most variable one, ranging from 0.01 to 4 percent by volume; its concentration in air varies daily and seasonally, as well as geographically.

 Air is considered to be polluted when it contains certain substances in concentrations high enough and for durations long enough to cause harm or undesirable effects. These include adverse effects on human health, property, and atmospheric visibility. The atmosphere is susceptible to pollution from natural sources as well as from human activities. Some natural phenomena, such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires, may have not only local and regional effects but also long-lasting global ones. Nevertheless, only pollution caused by human activities, such as industry and transportation, is subject to mitigation and control.

      Most air contaminants originate from combustion processes. In the Middle Ages the burning of coal for fuel caused recurrent air-pollution problems in London and in other large European cities. Beginning in the 19th century, in the wake of the Industrial Revolution, increasing use of fossil fuels intensified the severity and frequency of air-pollution episodes. The advent of mobile sources of air pollution—i.e., gasoline-powered highway vehicles—had a tremendous impact on air quality problems in cities. It was not until the middle of the 20th century, however, that meaningful and lasting attempts were made to regulate or limit emissions of air pollutants from stationary and mobile sources and to control air quality on both regional and local scales.

      The focus of air-pollution regulation in industrialized countries was initially on protecting ambient or outdoor air quality. This involved the control of a small number of specific criteria pollutants known to contribute to urban smog and chronic public health problems. Toward the end of the 20th century, the hazardous effects of trace amounts of many other air pollutants were recognized, and emission regulations were implemented. Long-term and far-reaching effects of certain substances on atmospheric chemistry and climate were also observed at that time, and cooperative international efforts were begun to mitigate their global effects.

Types, sources, and effects of air pollutants
      There are six traditional criteria pollutants. They include fine particulates, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and lead. Except for lead, criteria pollutants are emitted in industrialized countries at very high rates, typically measured in millions of tons per year. All except ozone are discharged directly into the atmosphere from a wide variety of sources. They are regulated primarily by establishing ambient air quality standards, which are maximum acceptable concentrations of each criteria pollutant in the atmosphere, regardless of their origin.

      Hazardous air pollutants are emitted in smaller amounts than are the criteria pollutants, usually from specific industrial activities. They are regulated primarily by emission standards, which are maximum allowable rates at which each air pollutant can be discharged from a particular source. Although the total emissions and the number of sources of these pollutants are small compared with those for criteria pollutants, hazardous air pollutants can pose an immediate health risk to exposed individuals and can cause other environmental problems.

Criteria pollutants

Fine particulates
      Very small fragments of solid materials or liquid droplets suspended in air are called particulates. Except for airborne lead, which is treated as a separate category, they are characterized on the basis of size and phase (i.e., solid or liquid) rather than by chemical composition. For example, solid particulates between roughly 1 and 100 μm (0.00004 and 0.004 inch) in diameter are called dust particles, whereas airborne solids less than 1 μm in diameter are called fumes.

      The particulates of most concern with regard to their effects on human health are solids less than 10 μm (0.0004 inch) in diameter, because they can be inhaled deep into the lungs and become trapped in the lower respiratory system. Certain particulates, such as asbestos fibres, are known carcinogens (carcinogen) (cancer-causing agents), and many carbonaceous particulates—e.g., soot—are suspected of being carcinogenic. Major sources of particulate emissions include fossil-fuel power plants, manufacturing processes, fossil-fuel residential heating systems, and gasoline-powered vehicles.

      Carbon monoxide is an odourless, invisible gas formed as a result of incomplete combustion. It is the most abundant of the criteria pollutants. Gasoline-powered highway vehicles are the primary source, although residential heating systems and certain industrial processes also emit significant amounts of this gas. Power plants emit relatively little carbon monoxide because they are carefully designed and operated to maximize combustion efficiency. Exposure to carbon monoxide can be acutely harmful since it readily displaces oxygen in the bloodstream, leading to asphyxiation at high enough concentrations and exposure times.

      A colourless gas with a sharp, choking odour, sulfur dioxide is formed during the combustion of coal or oil that contains sulfur as an impurity. Most sulfur dioxide emissions come from power-generating plants; very little comes from mobile sources. This pungent gas can cause eye and throat irritation and harm lung tissue when inhaled. It also reacts with oxygen and water vapour in the air, forming a mist of sulfuric acid that reaches the ground as a component of acid rain. Acid rain is believed to have harmed or destroyed fish and plant life in many thousands of lakes and streams in parts of Europe, the northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and parts of China. It also causes corrosion of metals and deterioration of the exposed surfaces of buildings and public monuments.

      Of the several forms of nitrogen oxides, nitrogen dioxide—a pungent, irritating gas—is of most concern. It is known to cause pulmonary edema, an accumulation of excessive fluid in the lungs. Nitrogen dioxide also reacts in the atmosphere to form nitric acid, contributing to the problem of acid rain. In addition, nitrogen dioxide plays a role in the formation of photochemical smog, a reddish brown haze that often is seen in many urban areas and that is created by sunlight-promoted reactions in the lower atmosphere.

      Nitrogen oxides are formed when combustion temperatures are high enough to cause molecular nitrogen in the air to react with oxygen. Stationary sources such as coal-burning power plants are major contributors of this pollutant, although gasoline engines and other mobile sources are also significant.

      A key component of photochemical smog, ozone is formed by a complex reaction between nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight. It is considered to be a criteria pollutant in the troposphere—the lowermost layer of the atmosphere—but not in the upper atmosphere, where it occurs naturally and serves to block harmful ultraviolet rays from the Sun. Because nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons are emitted in significant quantities by motor vehicles, photochemical smog is common in cities like Los Angeles, where sunshine is ample and highway traffic is heavy. Certain geographic features, such as mountains that impede air movement, and weather conditions, such as temperature inversions in the troposphere, contribute to the trapping of air pollutants and the formation of photochemical smog.

      Inhaled lead particulates in the form of fumes and dusts are particularly harmful to children, in whom even slightly elevated levels of lead in the blood can cause learning disabilities, seizures, or even death. Motor vehicles that burn gasoline containing a lead-based antiknock additive are a major source of lead fumes. Additional sources include petroleum refineries, smelting operations, activities to recover lead from lead-acid batteries, and other industrial processes. In the United States lead concentrations in outdoor air decreased more than 90 percent after the use of leaded gasoline was restricted in the mid-1970s and then completely banned in 1996.

Hazardous air pollutants (air toxics)
      Hundreds of specific substances are considered hazardous when present in trace amounts in the air; these pollutants are also called air toxics. Many of them cause gene mutations or cancer; some cause other types of health problems such as adverse effects on brain tissue or fetal development. Other than in cases of occupational exposure or accidental release, health threats from air toxics are greatest for people who live near large industrial facilities or in congested and polluted urban areas.

      Most air toxics are organic chemicals, comprising molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, and other atoms. Many are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), organic compounds that readily evaporate. VOCs include pure hydrocarbons, partially oxidized hydrocarbons, and organic compounds containing chlorine, sulfur, or nitrogen. They are widely used as fuels (e.g., propane and gasoline), as paint thinners and solvents, and in the production of plastics. In addition to contributing to air toxicity and urban smog, VOC emissions contribute to the Earth's greenhouse effect and, in so doing, may be a cause of global warming. Some other air toxics are metals or compounds of metals—for example, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium.

      The first hazardous air pollutants regulated in the United States (outside the workplace environment) were arsenic, asbestos, benzene, beryllium, coke oven emissions, mercury, radionuclides (radioactive isotopes), and vinyl chloride. In 1990 this short list was expanded to include 189 substances. By the end of the 1990s, specific emission control standards were required in the United States for “major sources” that release more than 10 tons per year of any of these materials or more than 25 tons per year of any combination of them.

      Most major sources of air toxics are point sources—that is, they have a specific location. Point sources include chemical plants, steel mills, oil refineries, and municipal waste incinerators. Hazardous air pollutants may be released when equipment leaks or when material is transferred, or they may be emitted from smokestacks. Municipal waste incinerators, for example, can emit hazardous levels of dioxins, formaldehyde, and other organic substances, as well as metals such as arsenic, beryllium, lead, and mercury. Nevertheless, proper combustion along with appropriate air-pollution control devices can reduce emissions of these substances to acceptable levels.

      Hazardous air pollutants also come from area sources, which comprise many smaller sources that release pollutants into the outdoor air in a defined area. Such sources include commercial dry-cleaning facilities, gas stations, small metal-plating operations, and woodstoves. Emission of air toxics from area sources are also regulated under some circumstances.

      Small area sources account for about 25 percent of all emissions of air toxics; major point sources account for another 20 percent. The rest—more than half of hazardous air pollutant emissions—come from motor vehicles. Benzene, for example, a component of gasoline, is released as unburned fuel or as fuel vapours, and formaldehyde is one of the by-products of incomplete combustion. Newer cars, however, have emission control devices that significantly reduce the release of air toxics.

Techniques for controlling air pollution
      The best way to protect air quality is to reduce pollutant emissions by changing to fuels and processes that are less polluting. Pollutants that are not eliminated in this way must be collected or trapped by appropriate air-cleaning devices as they are generated and before they can escape into the atmosphere. This discussion focuses on the control of ambient air pollution from stationary sources, including power plants and industrial facilities. The control of air pollution from mobile sources is discussed separately in the articles emission control system (emission-control system) and automobile. Many types of air-cleaning devices exist for removing particulate and gaseous air pollutants. They are applicable to both air toxics and criteria pollutants.

Control of particulates
      Airborne particles can be removed from a polluted airstream by a variety of physical processes. Common types of equipment for collecting fine particulates include cyclones, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and baghouse filters. Once collected, particulates adhere to each other, forming agglomerates that can readily be removed from the equipment and disposed of, usually in a landfill.

      Because each air-pollution control project is unique, it is usually not possible to decide in advance what the best type of particle collection device (or combination of devices) will be; control systems must be designed on a case-by-case basis. Important particulate characteristics that influence the selection of collection devices include corrosivity, reactivity, shape, density, and especially size and size distribution (the range of different particle sizes in the airstream). Other design factors include airstream characteristics (e.g., pressure, temperature, and viscosity), flow rate, removal efficiency requirements, and allowable resistance to airflow. In general, cyclone collectors are often used to control industrial dust emissions and as precleaners for other kinds of collection devices. Wet scrubbers are usually applied in the control of flammable or explosive dusts or mists from such sources as industrial and chemical processing facilities and hazardous-waste incinerators; they can handle hot airstreams and sticky particles. Electrostatic precipitators and fabric-filter baghouses are often used at power plants.

Cyclones
 A cyclone (see figure—>) removes particulates by causing the dirty airstream to flow in a spiral path inside a cylindrical chamber. Dirty air enters the chamber from a tangential direction at the outer wall of the device, forming a vortex as it swirls within the chamber. The larger particulates, because of their greater inertia, move outward and are forced against the chamber wall. Slowed by friction with the wall surface, they then slide down the wall into a conical dust hopper at the bottom of the cyclone. The cleaned air swirls upward in a narrower spiral through an inner cylinder and emerges from an outlet at the top. Accumulated particulate dust is periodically removed from the hopper for disposal.

      Cyclones are best at removing relatively coarse particulates. They can routinely achieve efficiencies of 90 percent for particles larger than about 20 μm (0.0008 inch). By themselves, however, cyclones are not sufficient to meet stringent air quality standards. They are typically used as precleaners and are followed by more efficient air-cleaning equipment such as electrostatic precipitators and baghouses.

Scrubbers
      Devices called wet scrubbers trap suspended particles by direct contact with a spray of water or other liquid. In effect, a scrubber washes the particulates out of the dirty airstream as they collide with and are entrained by the countless tiny droplets in the spray.

      Several configurations of wet scrubbers are in use. In a spray-tower scrubber, an upward-flowing airstream is washed by water sprayed downward from a series of nozzles. The water is recirculated after it is sufficiently cleaned to prevent clogging of the nozzles. Spray-tower scrubbers can remove 90 percent of particulates larger than about 8 μm (0.0003 inch).

      In orifice scrubbers and wet-impingement scrubbers, the air and droplet mixture collides with a solid surface. Collision with a surface atomizes the droplets, reducing droplet size and thereby increasing total surface contact area. These devices have the advantage of lower water-recirculation rates, and they offer removal efficiencies of about 90 percent for particles larger than 2 μm (0.00008 inch).

      Venturi scrubbers are the most efficient of the wet collectors, achieving efficiencies of more than 98 percent for particles larger than 0.5 μm (0.00002 inch) in diameter. Scrubber efficiency depends on the relative velocity between the droplets and the particulates. Venturi scrubbers achieve high relative velocities by injecting water into the throat of a venturi channel—a constriction in the flow path—through which particulate-laden air is passing at high speed.

Electrostatic precipitators (electrostatic precipitation)
 Electrostatic precipitation is a commonly used method for removing fine particulates from airstreams. In an electrostatic precipitator (see figure—>), particles suspended in the airstream are given an electric charge as they enter the unit and are then removed by the influence of an electric field. The precipitation unit comprises baffles for distributing airflow, discharge and collection electrodes, a dust clean-out system, and collection hoppers. A high DC voltage (as much as 100,000 volts) is applied to the discharge electrodes to charge the particles, which then are attracted to oppositely charged collection electrodes, on which they become trapped.

      In a typical unit the collection electrodes comprise a group of large rectangular metal plates suspended vertically and parallel to each other inside a boxlike structure. There are often hundreds of plates having a combined surface area of tens of thousands of square metres. Rows of discharge electrode wires hang between the collection plates. The wires are given a negative electric charge, whereas the plates are grounded and thus become positively charged.

      Particles that stick to the collection plates are removed periodically when the plates are shaken, or “rapped.” Rapping is a mechanical technique for separating the trapped particles from the plates, which typically become covered with a 6-mm (0.2-inch) layer of dust. Rappers are either of the impulse (single-blow) or vibrating type. The dislodged particles are collected in a hopper at the bottom of the unit and removed for disposal. An electrostatic precipitator can remove particulates as small as 1 μm (0.00004 inch) with an efficiency exceeding 99 percent. The effectiveness of electrostatic precipitators in removing fly ash from the combustion gases of fossil-fuel furnaces accounts for their high frequency of use at power stations.

Baghouse filters
 One of the most efficient devices for removing suspended particulates is an assembly of fabric filter bags, commonly called a baghouse. A typical baghouse (see figure—>) comprises an array of long, narrow bags—each about 25 cm (10 inches) in diameter—that are suspended upside down in a large enclosure. Dust-laden air is blown upward through the bottom of the enclosure by fans. Particulates are trapped inside the filter bags, while the clean air passes through the fabric and exits at the top of the baghouse.

      A fabric-filter dust collector can remove very nearly 100 percent of particles as small as 1 μm (0.00004 inch) and a significant fraction of particles as small as 0.01 μm (0.0000004 inch). Fabric filters, however, offer relatively high resistance to airflow, and they are expensive to operate and maintain. Additionally, to prolong the useful life of the filter fabric, the air to be cleaned must be cooled (usually below 300 °C [570 °F]) before it is passed through the unit; cooling coils needed for this purpose add to the expense. (Certain filter fabrics—e.g., those made of ceramic or mineral materials—can operate at higher temperatures.)

      Several compartments of filter bags are often used at a single baghouse installation. This arrangement allows individual compartments to be cleaned while others remain in service. The bags are cleaned by mechanical shakers or by reversing the flow of air, and the loosened particulates are collected and removed for disposal.

Control of gases
      Gaseous criteria pollutants, as well as VOCs and other gaseous air toxics, are controlled by means of three basic techniques: absorption, adsorption, and incineration. These techniques can be employed singly or in combination.

      In the context of air-pollution control, absorption involves the transfer of a gaseous pollutant from the air into a contacting liquid, such as water. The liquid must be able either to serve as a solvent for the pollutant or to capture it by means of a chemical reaction.

      Wet scrubbers similar to those employed to control suspended particulates may be used for gas absorption. Gas absorption can also be carried out in packed scrubbers, or towers, in which the liquid is present on a wetted surface rather than as droplets suspended in the air. A common type of packed scrubber is the countercurrent tower. After entering the bottom of the tower, the polluted airstream flows upward through a wetted column of light, chemically inactive packing material. The liquid absorbent flows downward and is uniformly spread throughout the column packing, thereby increasing the total area of contact between gas and liquid. Thermoplastic materials are most widely used as packing for countercurrent scrubber towers. These devices usually have gas removal efficiencies of 90–95 percent.

      Cocurrent and cross-flow packed scrubber designs are also used for gas absorption. In the cocurrent design, both gas and liquid flow in the same direction—vertically downward through the scrubber. Although not as efficient as countercurrent designs, cocurrent devices can work at higher liquid flow rates. The increased flow prevents plugging of the packing when the airstream contains high levels of particulates. Cocurrent designs also afford lowered resistance to airflow and allow the cross-sectional area of the tower to be reduced. The cross-flow design, in which gas flows horizontally through the packing and liquid flows vertically downward, also can operate with lower airflow resistance when high particulate levels are present.

      In general, scrubbers are used at fertilizer production facilities (to remove ammonia from the airstream), at glass production plants (to remove hydrogen fluoride), at chemical plants (to remove water-soluble solvents such as acetone and methyl alcohol), and at rendering plants (to control odours).

      Sulfur dioxide in flue gas from fossil-fuel power plants can be controlled by means of an absorption process called flue gas desulfurization (FGD). FGD systems may involve wet scrubbing or dry scrubbing. In wet FGD systems, flue gases are brought in contact with an absorbent, which can be either a liquid or a slurry of solid material. The sulfur dioxide dissolves in or reacts with the absorbent and becomes trapped in it. In dry FGD systems, the absorbent is dry pulverized lime or limestone; once absorption occurs, the solid particles are removed by means of baghouse filters. Dry FGD systems, compared with wet systems, offer cost and energy savings and easier operation, but they require higher chemical consumption and are limited to flue gases derived from the combustion of low-sulfur coal.

      FGD systems are also classified as either regenerable or nonregenerable (throwaway), depending on whether the sulfur that is removed from the flue gas is recovered or discarded. In the U.S. most systems in operation are nonregenerable because of their lower capital and operating costs. By contrast, in Japan regenerable systems are used extensively, and in Germany they are required by law. Nonregenerable FGD systems produce a sulfur-containing sludge residue that requires appropriate disposal. Regenerable FGD systems require additional steps to convert the sulfur dioxide into useful by-products like sulfuric acid.

 Several FGD methods exist, differing mainly in the chemicals used in the process. FGD processes that employ either lime or limestone slurries as the reactants are widely applied. In the limestone scrubbing process (see figure—>), sulfur dioxide reacts with limestone (calcium carbonate) particles in the slurry, forming calcium sulfite and carbon dioxide. In the lime scrubbing process, sulfur dioxide reacts with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), forming calcium sulfite and water. Depending on sulfur dioxide concentrations and oxidation conditions, the calcium sulfite can continue to react with water, forming calcium sulfate (gypsum). Neither calcium sulfite nor calcium sulfate is very soluble in water, and both can be precipitated out as a slurry by gravity settling. The thick slurry, called FGD sludge, creates a significant disposal problem. Flue gas desulfurization helps to reduce ambient sulfur dioxide levels and mitigate the acid rain problem. Nevertheless, in addition to its expense (which is passed on directly to the consumer as higher rates for electricity), millions of tons of FGD sludge are generated each year.

      Gas adsorption, as contrasted with absorption, is a surface phenomenon. The gas molecules are sorbed—attracted to and held—on the surface of a solid. Gas adsorption methods are used for odour control at various types of chemical-manufacturing and food-processing facilities, in the recovery of a number of volatile solvents (e.g., benzene), and in the control of VOCs at industrial facilities.

      Activated carbon (heated charcoal) is one of the most common adsorbent materials; it is very porous and has an extremely high ratio of surface area to volume. Activated carbon is particularly useful as an adsorbent for cleaning airstreams that contain VOCs and for solvent recovery and odour control. A properly designed carbon adsorption unit can remove gas with an efficiency exceeding 95 percent.

      Adsorption systems are configured either as stationary bed units or as moving bed units. In stationary bed adsorbers, the polluted airstream enters from the top, passes through a layer, or bed, of activated carbon, and exits at the bottom. In moving bed adsorbers, the activated carbon moves slowly down through channels by gravity as the air to be cleaned passes through in a cross-flow current.

      The process called incineration or combustion—chemically, rapid oxidation—can be used to convert VOCs and other gaseous hydrocarbon pollutants to carbon dioxide and water. Incineration of VOCs and hydrocarbon fumes usually is accomplished in a special incinerator called an afterburner. To achieve complete combustion, the afterburner must provide the proper amount of turbulence and burning time, and it must maintain a sufficiently high temperature. Sufficient turbulence, or mixing, is a key factor in combustion because it reduces the required burning time and temperature. A process called direct flame incineration can be used when the waste gas is itself a combustible mixture and does not need the addition of air or fuel.

      An afterburner typically is made of a steel shell lined with refractory material such as fireclay brick. The refractory lining protects the shell and serves as a thermal insulator. Given enough time and high enough temperatures, gaseous organic pollutants can be almost completely oxidized, with incineration efficiency approaching 100 percent. Certain substances, such as platinum, can act in a manner that assists the combustion reaction. These substances, called catalysts, allow complete oxidation of the combustible gases at relatively low temperatures.

      Afterburners are used to control odours, destroy toxic compounds, or reduce the amount of photochemically reactive substances released into the air. They are employed at a variety of industrial facilities where VOC vapours are emitted from combustion processes or solvent evaporation (e.g., petroleum refineries, paint-drying facilities, and paper mills).

Jerry A. Nathanson

Additional Reading
Broad coverage of water supply, waste disposal, pollution, and other public health and environmental sanitation topics may be found in Jerry A. Nathanson, Basic Environmental Technology (1986); Gilbert M. Masters, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science (1991); and Joseph A. Salvato, Environmental Engineering and Sanitation, 4th ed. (1992), including administrative aspects.Norman Smith, Man and Water (1975), presents a comprehensive history of water technology, including irrigation, hydropower, and drinking water. Mark J. Hammer, Water and Wastewater Technology, 2nd ed. (1986), an introductory engineering text, covers municipal water processing and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, and sludge disposal. James C. Lamb III, Water Quality and Its Control (1985), provides a comprehensive but nontechnical introduction to water resources, including the basics of municipal water and wastewater systems, aquatic ecology, and water quality controls. Comprehensive, in-depth technical descriptions of the major desalting methods are found in K.S. Spiegler and A.D.K. Laird, Principles of Desalination, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1980). James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers, Inc., Water Treatment Principles and Design (1985), is a technical presentation of the physical, chemical, and microbiological principles of water purification, including process control, facilities design, and operational issues. Terence J. McGhee, Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed. (1991), presents sanitary engineering principles with emphasis on the design of water and sewage works. Warren Viessman, Jr., and Mark J. Hammer, Water Supply and Pollution Control, 5th ed. (1993), an engineering textbook, emphasizes the application of scientific principles to solving problems related to the movement and treatment of water and sewage. Warren Viessman, Jr., and Claire Welty, Water Management: Technology and Institutions (1985), presents the technical aspects of water resources systems as well as discussions of the related economic, political, and social problems. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse, 3rd ed. rev. by George Tchobanoglous and Franklin L. Burton (1991), offers a detailed technical presentation of wastewater engineering principles and practices in a form suitable as a reference for professional engineers and as a textbook for engineering students.E.S. Savas, The Organization and Efficiency of Solid Waste Collection (1977), gives a thorough description of how cities organize, manage, and finance solid-waste collection services. George Tchobanoglous, Hilary Theisen, and Rolf Eliassen, Solid Wastes: Engineering Principles and Management Issues (1977), focuses on collection, transport, treatment, recovery, and disposal of residential and commercial solid wastes. C.L. Mantell (ed.), Solid Wastes: Origin, Collection, Processing, and Disposal (1975), offers technical discussion and case studies and includes the topics of agricultural and food-processing wastes, animal husbandry wastes, process industry wastes, and mineral and metallurgical wastes. David Gordon Wilson (ed.), Handbook of Solid Waste Management (1977), is a comprehensive source of data on the properties, handling, processing, and disposal of municipal solid waste, including information on resource reclamation and energy recovery. Amalendu Bagchi, Design, Construction, and Monitoring of Landfills, 2nd ed. (1994), provides in-depth coverage of modern landfill design, including site selection, leachate and gas control, operation, and economic analysis. Luis F. Diaz et al., Composting and Recycling Municipal Solid Waste (1993), thoroughly discusses municipal recycling facilities, waste composting operations, and integrated waste management concepts.J. William Haun, Guide to the Management of Hazardous Waste (1991), offers an introduction to the problems of hazardous-waste production, identification, treatment, and disposal and includes a discussion of laws and social issues. William C. Blackman, Jr., Basic Hazardous Waste Management (1993), is an introduction to hazardous-waste management methods and includes coverage of radioactive and infectious biomedical wastes. Michael D. LaGrega, Phillip L. Buckingham, and Jeffrey C. Evans, Hazardous Waste Management (1994), a professional reference and graduate-level engineering textbook, provides a comprehensive overview of hazardous-waste treatment, storage, disposal, site remediation, and management issues.Noel de Nevers, Air Pollution Control Engineering (1995), a university-level textbook, focuses on chemical engineering design applications and theory of air-pollution control equipment, effects of air pollution, air-pollution laws and regulations, meteorological factors, and atmospheric models. C. David Cooper and F.C. Alley, Air Pollution Control: A Design Approach, 2nd ed. (1994), covers equipment and technical details of process design for controlling particulates and gases, with an overview of air-pollution sources, effects, meteorological factors, and dispersion of pollutants. Howard E. Hesketh, Air Pollution Control: Traditional and Hazardous Pollutants, rev. ed. (1996), provides a technical and theoretical treatment of air-pollution control mechanisms and devices, with application data.Jerry A. Nathanson

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