Northern Mariana Islands

Northern Mariana Islands
group of islands in the W Pacific Ocean, including all of the Mariana Islands except Guam: a commonwealth in association with the U.S. since 1986, it was formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (as part of the Mariana Islands): land area c. 179 sq mi (464 sq km); pop. 69,000; cap. Saipan: abbrev. MP: also Northern Marianas

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Northern Mariana Islands

Introduction Northern Mariana Islands -
Background: Under US administration as part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern Mariana Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead to forge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial status began in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political union with the US was approved in 1975. A new government and constitution went into effect in 1978. Geography Northern Mariana Islands
Location: Oceania, islands in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines
Geographic coordinates: 15 12 N, 145 45 E
Map references: Oceania
Area: total: 477 sq km note: includes 14 islands including Saipan, Rota, and Tinian water: 0 sq km land: 477 sq km
Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
Land boundaries: 0 km
Coastline: 1,482 km
Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 NM territorial sea: 12 NM
Climate: tropical marine; moderated by northeast trade winds, little seasonal temperature variation; dry season December to June, rainy season July to October
Terrain: southern islands are limestone with level terraces and fringing coral reefs; northern islands are volcanic
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location on Agrihan 965 m
Natural resources: arable land, fish
Land use: arable land: 15.22% permanent crops: 6.52% other: 78.26% (1998 est.)
Irrigated land: NA sq km
Natural hazards: active volcanoes on Pagan and Agrihan; typhoons (especially August to November) Environment - current issues: contamination of groundwater on Saipan may contribute to disease; clean-up of landfill; protection of endangered species conflicts with development
Geography - note: strategic location in the North Pacific Ocean People Northern Mariana Islands -
Population: 77,311 (July 2002 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 23.4% (male 9,208; female 8,902) 15-64 years: 74.8% (male 27,041; female 30,781) 65 years and over: 1.8% (male 690; female 689) (2002 est.)
Population growth rate: 3.49% (2002 est.)
Birth rate: 20.29 births/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Death rate: 2.42 deaths/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Net migration rate: 17.02 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1 male(s)/female total population: 0.92 male(s)/ female (2002 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 5.61 deaths/1,000 live births (2002 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 75.95 years female: 79.23 years (2002 est.) male: 72.85 years
Total fertility rate: 1.76 children born/woman (2002 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: NA% HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/ NA
AIDS:
HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA
Nationality: noun: NA adjective: NA
Ethnic groups: Chamorro, Carolinians and other Micronesians, Caucasian, Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, Korean
Religions: Christian (Roman Catholic majority, although traditional beliefs and taboos may still be found)
Languages: English, Chamorro, Carolinian note: 86% of population speaks a language other than English at home
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97% male: 97% female: 96% (1980 est.) Government Northern Mariana Islands -
Country name: conventional long form: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands conventional short form: Northern Mariana Islands former: Mariana Islands District (Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)
Dependency status: commonwealth in political union with the US; federal funds to the Commonwealth administered by the US Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs
Government type: commonwealth; self-governing with locally elected governor, lieutenant governor, and legislature
Capital: Saipan Administrative divisions: none (commonwealth in political union with the US); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are four municipalities at the second order; Northern Islands, Rota, Saipan, Tinian
Independence: none (commonwealth in political union with the US)
National holiday: Commonwealth Day, 8 January (1978)
Constitution: Covenant Agreement effective 4 November 1986 and the Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands effective 1 January 1978
Legal system: based on US system, except for customs, wages, immigration laws, and taxation
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal; indigenous inhabitants are US citizens but do not vote in US presidential elections
Executive branch: chief of state: President George W. BUSH of the US (since 20 January 2001); Vice President Richard B. CHENEY (since 20 January 2001) head of government: Governor Juan N. BABOUTA (since NA January 2002) and Lieutenant Governor Diego T. BENEVENTE (since NA January 2002) cabinet: NA elections: US president and vice president elected on the same ticket for four-year terms; governor and lieutenant governor elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held NA November 2001 (next to be held NA November 2005) election results: Juan N. BABOUTA elected governor in a four-way race; percent of vote - Juan N. BABOUTA (Republican Party) 49%
Legislative branch: + bicameral Legislature consists of the Senate (9 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year staggered terms) and the House of Representatives (18 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - Republican Party 4, Democratic Party 3, Reform Party 1, independent 1; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - Republican Party 16, Democratic Party 1, Covenant Party 1 note: the Northern Mariana Islands does not have a nonvoting delegate in the US Congress; instead, it has an elected official or "resident representative" located in Washington, DC; seats by party - Republican Party 1 (Pedro A. TENORIO) elections: Senate - last held 5 November 2001 (next to be held NA November 2003); House of Representatives - last held 5 November 2001 (next to be held NA November 2003)
Judicial branch: Commonwealth Supreme Court; Superior Court; Federal District Court Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party [Dr. Carlos S. CAMACHO]; Republican Party [Benigno R. FITIAL] Political pressure groups and NA
leaders: International organization ESCAP (associate), Interpol
participation: (subbureau), SPC
Flag description: blue, with a white, five-pointed star superimposed on the gray silhouette of a latte stone (a traditional foundation stone used in building) in the center, surrounded by a wreath Economy Northern Mariana Islands
Economy - overview: The economy benefits substantially from financial assistance from the US. The rate of funding has declined as locally generated government revenues have grown. The key tourist industry employs about 50% of the work force and accounts for roughly one-fourth of GDP. Japanese tourists predominate. Annual tourist entries have exceeded one-half million in recent years, but financial difficulties in Japan have caused a temporary slowdown. The agricultural sector is made up of cattle ranches and small farms producing coconuts, breadfruit, tomatoes, and melons. Garment production is by far the most important industry with employment of 17,500 mostly Chinese workers and sizable shipments to the US under duty and quota exemptions.
GDP: purchasing power parity - $900 million (2000 est.) note: GDP numbers reflect US spending
GDP - real growth rate: NA%
GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $12,500 (2000 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: NA% industry: NA% services: NA% Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by lowest 10%: NA%
percentage share: highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.2% (1997 est.)
Labor force: 6,006 total indigenous labor force; 2,699 unemployed; 28,717 foreign workers (1995) Labor force - by occupation: NA
Unemployment rate: NA%
Budget: revenues: $193 million expenditures: $223 million, including capital expenditures of NA (FY 2001/02 est.)
Industries: tourism, construction, garments, handicrafts Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: NA kWh Electricity - consumption: NA kWh
Agriculture - products: coconuts, fruits, vegetables; cattle
Exports: $NA
Exports - commodities: garments
Exports - partners: US
Imports: $NA
Imports - commodities: food, construction equipment and materials, petroleum products
Imports - partners: US, Japan
Debt - external: $NA Economic aid - recipient: extensive funding from US
Currency: US dollar (USD)
Currency code: USD
Exchange rates: the US dollar is used
Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September Communications Northern Mariana Islands - Telephones - main lines in use: 21,000 (1996) Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,200 (1995)
Telephone system: general assessment: NA domestic: NA international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998)
Radios: NA Television broadcast stations: 1 (on Saipan and one station planned for Rota; in addition, two cable services on Saipan provide varied programming from satellite networks) (1997)
Televisions: NA
Internet country code: .mp Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (2001)
Internet users: NA Transportation Northern Mariana Islands - Railways: 0 km Highways: total: 362 km paved: NA km unpaved: NA km (1991)
Waterways: none
Ports and harbors: Saipan, Tinian
Merchant marine: none (2002 est.) Airports: 6 (2001)
Airports - with paved runways: total: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (2001)
Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 3 under 914 m: 2 (2001) 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
Heliports: 1 (2001) Military Northern Mariana Islands -
Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the US Transnational Issues Northern Mariana Islands - Disputes - international: none

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Self-governing commonwealth (pop., 2002 est.: 70,000) in political union with the U.S., in the western Pacific Ocean.

Composed of 22 islands north of Guam, the Northern Marianas extend 450 mi (720 km) and have an area of 184 sq mi (477 sq km). The capital, Chalan Kanoa, is on Saipan. Saipan, Tinian, and Rota are the principal inhabited islands. Others include Alamagan and Agrihan; Pagan was evacuated for a time after a 1981 volcanic eruption. The indigenous people are Micronesian; other inhabitants are Chamorro and Filipino. The islands were discovered by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. They were colonized by Spain in 1668. Sold by Spain to Germany in 1899, they were occupied by Japan in 1914 and became a Japanese mandate from the League of Nations after 1919. They were the scene of fierce fighting in World War II; Tinian was the base for U.S. planes that dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Northern Marianas were granted to the U.S. in 1947 as a UN trust territory, became self-governing in 1978, and became a commonwealth under U.S. sovereignty in 1986, when the residents became U.S. citizens. The UN trusteeship ended in 1990.

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▪ islands, Pacific Ocean
Introduction
also called  Northern Marianas,  officially  Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands 
  a self-governing commonwealth in association with the United States. It is composed of 22 islands and islets in the western Pacific Ocean. The commonwealth is a part of the Mariana Islands, a chain of volcanic mountain peaks and uplifted coral reefs. (The Marianas chain also includes the politically separate island of Guam, to the south.) Saipan (46.5 square miles [120 square km]), Tinian (39 square miles [101 square km]), and Rota (33 square miles [85 square km]) are the principal islands and, together with Anatahan, Alamagan, and Agrihan, are inhabited. Another island, Pagan, was evacuated in 1981 after a severe volcanic eruption there. The capital is on Saipan. Area 176.5 square miles (457 square km). Pop. (2000) 69,221.

      Rota, the southernmost island, consists of a volcanic base capped with coral limestone, giving it a terraced appearance. Four southern islands (Farallon de Medinilla, Saipan, Tinian, and Aguijan) are composed of limestone and have gently rolling elevations and few mountains. The islands farther north are volcanic peaks. Mount Pagan erupted in 1922 and again in 1981, 1983, 1988, and 1994; Farallon de Pajaros, the northernmost of the Marianas, and Asuncion are also active volcanoes. Agrihan volcano, the highest of the Northern Mariana group, rises to 3,166 feet (965 metres). Besides Guam, the nearest neighbours are the Bonin Islands (north) and the Federated States of Micronesia (Micronesia) ( Caroline Islands; southeast).

      The climate is tropical, with average yearly temperatures on Saipan ranging between 79 and 82 °F (26 and 28 °C) and annual precipitation averaging about 70 inches (1,800 mm). Heavy rains are common, and typhoons strike the islands periodically. Precipitation is significantly less on the northernmost islands.

      The four limestone islands have tropical or scrub forests at higher elevations and coconut palms and casuarina trees along the coast, with the exception of Farallon de Medinilla, which is barren. Where level or gently sloping areas occur, cattle are grazed. The steep slopes of the volcanic islands from Guguan northward are mostly barren. The soils in these areas are generally shallow and low in fertility. The islands are major nesting sites for many types of migratory seabirds, including several endangered species.

      The native people of the Northern Mariana Islands are Micronesians. Only about one-fifth of the total population are Chamorros (Chamorro), descendants of the original inhabitants, who intermingled with Spaniards, Mexicans, Filipinos, and various other Europeans and Asians. About one-fourth of the people are Filipino and one-fourth are Chinese. A smaller number are Carolinians, descendants of people who migrated from the central Carolines during the 19th century. About two-fifths of the Northern Marianas population is native-born; small numbers come from Guam, the United States, or nearby island states. More than half of the people are nonresident aliens, or guest workers, mostly from Asia and largely employed in the garment industry. Since the late 1990s the government has attempted to control and reduce the number of nonresidents.

      Having lost most of their original Pacific Islands culture, the people of the Northern Mariana Islands have a mode of life that is Spanish Roman Catholic but is influenced by American culture. Saipan has more than nine-tenths of the commonwealth's total population. Chamorro, related to Indonesian, is the principal language. Chamorro, Carolinian, and English are official languages; Chinese and Filipino are also widely used. About nine-tenths of the population speaks a language other than English at home. Although Roman Catholicism predominates, there are significant minorities of independent Christians, Protestants, and Buddhists.

Economy
      Tourism is the principal economic activity. Saipan and Rota are the main tourist centres and offer luxury hotels. The tourists are mainly Japanese and Americans. Subsistence farming, including the cultivation of taro, cassava, yams, breadfruit, vegetables, and bananas, is practiced extensively by many islanders to supplement their cash income. Investors from Korea, China, and the Philippines have expanded the islands' production of clothing and accessories, making the garment industry a major component of the Northern Marianas economy. The investors are attracted by duty-free and quota-free access to the U.S. mainland. However, the employment practices in the factories have been criticized. Labour and immigration regulations have been relatively lax, and it has been alleged at times that working conditions are sweatshoplike. The U.S. government has taken steps to improve conditions for workers.

      Saipan, Tinian, and Rota have paved roads; public transportation is almost nonexistent, but shuttle buses serve major towns. Transportation between the islands is largely by air, with some boat traffic primarily for cargo. Saipan is the largest port, followed by Tinian and Rota. Saipan has an international airport; there are smaller airports on Rota and Tinian.

Government and society
      Part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (Pacific Islands, Trust Territory of the) granted to the United States by the United Nations in 1947, the Northern Marianas voted in a plebiscite for status as a U.S. commonwealth in 1975. Some aspects of the commonwealth status were implemented in 1976, and the full commonwealth became effective upon the dissolution of the trust territory for the Marianas by the U.S. government in 1986. Eligible residents of the commonwealth became U.S. citizens at that time.

      According to the constitution of 1978, the U.S. president is chief of state. Residents elect a governor to a four-year term. They also elect a lieutenant governor and a bicameral legislature: a 9-member Senate and an 18-member House of Representatives.

      All inhabited islands have primary schools and hospitals. Schooling is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. There are public and church-run secondary schools on Saipan. Northern Marianas College, a public institution with its main campus on Saipan and branches on Tinian and Rota, was established in 1981. A high percentage of students earn university degrees, notably from the University of Guam and the University of Hawaii (Hawaii, University of).

Cultural life
      The cultural diversity of the Northern Marianas has increased rapidly since the late 20th century. There are growing Filipino, Chinese, and Korean communities, although they have limited political representation. The Carolinian community, which has lived on Saipan since the 19th century, is represented in the legislature. The local Chamorro population, with its tradition of extended families, is dominant in political, economic, and cultural matters. A local arts council has promoted folk arts and cultural events in the community, and there are small museums and libraries. Public beach parks and preserves as well as golf courses and other sports facilities provide recreation; scuba diving is particularly popular among tourists. American national holidays and several local holidays are celebrated. The Guam daily newspaper, which provides some local coverage, supplements two local weekly newspapers; all are published in English. There are several radio and television stations, and mobile phone usage, though low, was increasing in the early 21st century.

Early period
      Archaeological evidence at Chalan Piao on Saipan indicates that the Northern Marianas were settled by an insular people originating in Southeast Asia. They made a distinctive form of red-slipped pottery, sometimes incised with lime-filled decoration, closely related to Philippine ceramics. By AD 800 a plain, unslipped pottery style was in use. Stone architecture had also developed, characterized by parallel rows of upright pillars topped with hemispheric capstones (halege). According to early Spanish accounts, the pillars were supports for structures called latte (for which term the culture is named), which may have served as houses or canoe sheds. Each village had from one to several latte structures. Stone and shell tools were used and betel nuts were chewed, as shown by extended burials most often located between the rows of latte.

      The Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan (Magellan, Ferdinand) was the first European to arrive on the Marianas when he stopped there briefly in 1521. There is some historical question as to which island he actually visited, but Magellan named the islands the Ladrones (Spanish: “Thieves”) because while he was there some of the islanders took a small skiff that he had trailing behind one of his ships.

      In 1565 Miguel López de Legazpi (Legazpi, Miguel López de) landed at Umatac, Guam, and proclaimed Spanish sovereignty over the Ladrones; some priests went ashore to perform mass. No colonies were started at that time, however, because the Spanish were more interested in conquests in the Americas, the Philippines, and the Moluccas. The British adventurer Thomas Cavendish (Cavendish, Thomas) was the next to visit the Marianas, in 1588 aboard the Desire. He traded briefly, and as he left he ordered his men to open fire from the rear of the ship to discourage the islanders from following.

      The effects of the early explorers and those who followed them to the islands were mixed. On one hand the Europeans provided ironware and cloth, which was traded for fresh produce. On the other hand they introduced infectious diseases, including influenza, smallpox, leprosy, venereal diseases, and tuberculosis, which severely depleted the indigenous population.

Spanish colonial rule
      The permanent colonization (colonialism, Western) of the islands began with the arrival of the Jesuit priest Diego Luis de Sanvitores in 1668. With him were priests, laymen, women, and some Filipino soldiers. Mariana of Austria, the regent of Spain, financed his mission, and he renamed the islands the Marianas in her honour. Sanvitores and his colonists established churches and religious schools. A series of revolts attended those efforts, since the islanders resisted conversion to a religion that did not fit traditional beliefs. In response, the Spanish moved the population of the Marianas into enclaves and segregated the people into villages. Many islanders were killed in the process of relocation. Others died from the rapid spread of disease in the settlements, thus further decreasing the population.

      In 1680 the Spanish sent reinforcements led by José Quiroga, who was interim governor of the Marianas from 1680 to 1696. He subdued the islanders after a series of revolts, sieges, murders of missionaries, and burning of churches that was known as the “Chamorro wars” and that resulted in many islanders fleeing to the hills. In reprisal, the entire native population was relocated from Saipan and Rota in the northern Marianas to the island of Guam. Finally, the Chamorro people took the oath of allegiance to the king of Spain, accepted Spanish customs, and began to wear Western-style clothes, cultivate corn (maize), and eat red meat—some of the cultural traits that the Europeans associated with “higher” civilization. Artisans were sent to the villages to teach sewing, spinning, weaving, tanning, iron forging, stone masonry, and other crafts. By 1698 the subjugation of the Marianas was complete.

      The Spanish branched out from the Marianas into the rest of Micronesia, meeting only mild resistance. Guam became a regular stop for the Spanish galleons traveling between the Philippines and Mexico.

      By the 19th century the Marianas had become involved in European colonial rivalries. German and British soldiers and settlers began to encroach on Spanish claims in Micronesia, and difficulties were averted in 1886 by the mediation of Pope Leo XIII, whose efforts in this regard prevented war between Germany and Spain. But Spain's empire was weakening, and by 1898 war with the United States was at hand. After American naval forces under the command of Commodore George Dewey (Dewey, George) defeated the Spanish fleet in the Philippines and took Guam, Spain decided in 1899 to withdraw entirely from the Pacific. It subsequently sold its possessions—including all of the Marianas except Guam, which the Americans still held—to Germany.

German and Japanese control
      The Germans promptly established an administrative centre at Saipan, which had served as the seat of the Spanish administration after the Americans captured Guam in 1898. This period marked the permanent division between Guam and the Northern Marianas. Schools, a hospital, and other public buildings were erected in the Northern Marianas, and colonists were encouraged to emigrate from Germany. Large coconut plantations were started, as were other agricultural projects. Copra production was the main German agricultural interest.

      German control in the Northern Marianas ended abruptly with the outbreak of World War I. In October 1914 the Japanese navy took possession of the Northern Marianas and the rest of Micronesia. Japan's authority for this seizure was based on several secret agreements with the British designed to keep the peace in Asia in the event of war. After World War I, Japan received the Northern Marianas by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919, and then later as a mandate under the League of Nations on Dec. 17, 1920. The United States, which continued to hold Guam, recognized this mandate on Feb. 11, 1922.

      Japanese rule in the Northern Marianas was direct and allowed the islanders little part in local government. The basic laws of Japan were extended to the islands with only a few modifications to meet local conditions. Formal educational facilities were restricted, with emphasis placed on learning the Japanese language. Public health conditions, however, were improved, and hospitals were established. Economic development was Japan's main interest, and large sugarcane plantations and refineries were started at Saipan and Rota. Large numbers of labourers and investment capital were made available. There was also full employment.

 With the start of World War II in the Pacific in December 1941, the Japanese immediately took Guam from the United States and made their domination of the Marianas complete. The larger islands of Saipan, Tinian, Rota, Pagan, and Agrihan, along with Guam, became bases for Japanese expansion to the south and east. In 1943 U.S.-led Allied forces began to reduce Japanese strength in Micronesia, and in June–July 1944 the Marianas were neutralized with the recapture of Saipan, Tinian, and Guam. The three islands then became Allied bases for the bombing of the Japanese home islands; the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were flown from an air base at Tinian.

Events since c. 1950
      The U.S. invasion of the Marianas during the war destroyed the Japanese-created economy in the islands, and after the war the United States began the task of rebuilding. In 1947 Pres. Harry S. Truman signed an agreement with the United Nations (UN) to administer the Northern Marianas as a district within the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (Pacific Islands, Trust Territory of the) in Micronesia. Responsibility for the civil administration was given to the U.S. Navy. Then, on July 1, 1951, following the signing of the peace treaty with Japan and the renouncing of all Japanese claims to the Northern Marianas, responsibility for the UN Trusteeship was transferred to the U.S. secretary of the interior. A special designation of “strategic” trusteeship was made, placing ultimate jurisdiction of the Marianas under the UN Security Council. The other Micronesian island groups of the Marshalls and the Carolines were also covered under this trusteeship agreement.

      The United States pledged to “promote development…towards self-government or independence as may be appropriate.” In 1969 political status talks began between Micronesians from the entire trust territory and U.S. representatives. In 1973 the Northern Marianas began separate negotiations with the United States that led to a plebiscite in 1975, in which the people approved a commonwealth status in association with the United States. The new government began operations under its own constitution and an elected governor, who was installed in January 1978. Eligible residents of the Northern Marianas became U.S. citizens. The United States declared the trusteeship officially ended on Nov. 4, 1986. On that day, a Covenant Agreement established that the Northern Marianas would exist in political union with the United States, with the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs, administering federal funds allocated to the Northern Marianas.

      Beginning in the late 20th century, the Northern Marianas became a production centre for garment manufacturers. The commonwealth was exempt from many of the labour standards of the United States and from provisions of federal immigration and nationality law. As a result, factories imported workers from Bangladesh, China, the Philippines, and other Asian countries without restriction and maintained poor working conditions. After international attention focused on the alleged exploitation of workers, the U.S. government enacted minimum-wage legislation in 2007 that encompassed the Northern Marianas for the first time and instituted other measures to improve conditions; tax breaks were also created to offset the economic impact on small businesses. Industry suffered, however, from increased competition from China and other countries where labour costs remained lower. In addition, beginning in 2000 several typhoons damaged infrastructure and caused widespread property damage in the islands.

Dirk Anthony Ballendorf Sophie Foster Ed.

Additional Reading
Frederica M. Bunge and Melinda W. Cooke (eds.), Oceania: A Regional Study, 2nd ed. (1985); and Norman Douglas and Ngaire Douglas (eds.), Pacific Islands Yearbook, 17th ed. (1994), include discussions of the Northern Marianas. Douglas L. Oliver, Oceania: The Native Cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands, 2 vol. (1989), surveys aspects of Pacific Islands societies. International Business Publications, Northern Mariana Islands Country Study Guide (2007), has information on many aspects of the commonwealth, including its geography, history, culture, and people. Current events are discussed in Pacific Magazine (monthly, Hawaii).Historical and political treatments of the Northern Marianas are included in Francis X. Hezel, The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-Colonial Days, 1521–1885 (1983); Dirk Anthony Ballendorf and Frank P. King (eds.), Oceania Today: Towards New Directions and Political Self-Actualization (1980); Donald F. McHenry, Micronesia, Trust Betrayed: Altruism vs. Self Interest in American Foreign Policy (1975); and Mark R. Peattie, Nanˋyo: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885–1945 (1992). Howard P. Willens and Deanne C. Siemer, An Honorable Accord (2002), is a record of the negotiation and implementation of the agreement that established the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Ed.

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Universalium. 2010.

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