nonfictional prose

Introduction

      any literary work that is based mainly on fact, even though it may contain fictional elements. Examples are the essay and biography.

      Defining nonfictional prose literature is an immensely challenging task. This type of literature differs from bald statements of fact, such as those recorded in an old chronicle or inserted in a business letter or in an impersonal message of mere information. As used in a broad sense, the term nonfictional prose literature here designates writing intended to instruct (but does not include highly scientific and erudite writings in which no aesthetic concern is evinced), to persuade, to convert, or to convey experience or reality through “factual” or spiritual revelation. Separate articles cover biography and literary criticism.

Nature

      Nonfictional prose genres cover an almost infinite variety of themes, and they assume many shapes. In quantitative terms, if such could ever be valid in such nonmeasurable matters, they probably include more than half of all that has been written in countries having a literature of their own. Nonfictional prose genres have flourished in nearly all countries with advanced literatures. The genres include political and polemical writings, biographical and autobiographical literature, religious writings, and philosophical, and moral or religious writings.

      After the Renaissance, from the 16th century onward in Europe, a personal manner of writing grew in importance. The author strove for more or less disguised self-revelation and introspective analysis, often in the form of letters, private diaries, and confessions. Also of increasing importance were aphorisms after the style of the ancient Roman philosophers Seneca and Epictetus, imaginary dialogues, and historical narratives, and later, journalistic articles and extremely diverse essays. From the 19th century, writers in Romance and Slavic languages especially, and to a far lesser extent British and American writers, developed the attitude that a literature is most truly modern when it acquires a marked degree of self-awareness and obstinately reflects on its purpose and technique. Such writers were not content with imaginative creation alone: they also explained their work and defined their method in prefaces, reflections, essays, self-portraits, and critical articles. The 19th-century French (French literature) poet Charles Baudelaire (Baudelaire, Charles) asserted that no great poet could ever quite resist the temptation to become also a critic (literary criticism): a critic of others and of himself. Indeed, most modern writers, in lands other than the United States, whether they be poets, novelists, or dramatists, have composed more nonfictional prose than poetry, fiction, or drama. In the instances of such monumental figures of 20th-century literature as the poets Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, and William Butler Yeats, or the novelists Thomas Mann and André Gide, that part of their output may well be considered by posterity to be equal in importance to their more imaginative writing.

      It is virtually impossible to attempt a unitary characterization of nonfictional prose. The concern that any definition is a limitation, and perhaps an exclusion of the essential, is nowhere more apposite than to this inordinately vast and variegated literature. Ever since the ancient Greek and Roman philosophers devised literary genres (genre), some critics have found it convenient to arrange literary production into kinds or to refer it to modes.

Elements

      Obviously, a realm as boundless and diverse as nonfictional prose literature cannot be characterized as having any unity of intent, of technique, or of style. It can be defined, very loosely, only by what it is not. Many exceptions, in such a mass of writings, can always be brought up to contradict any rule or generalization. No prescriptive treatment is acceptable for the writing of essays, of aphorisms, of literary journalism, of polemical controversy, of travel literature, of memoirs and intimate diaries. No norms are recognized to determine whether a dialogue, a confession, a piece of religious or of scientific writing, is excellent, mediocre, or outright bad, and each author has to be relished, and appraised, chiefly in his own right. “The only technique,” the English critic F.R. Leavis (Leavis, F.R.) wrote in 1957, “is that which compels words to express an intensively personal way of feeling.” Intensity is probably useful as a standard; yet it is a variable, and often elusive, quality, possessed by polemicists and by ardent essayists to a greater extent than by others who are equally great. “Loving, and taking the liberties of a lover” was Virginia Woolf (Woolf, Virginia)'s characterization of the 19th-century critic William Hazlitt (Hazlitt, William)'s style: it instilled passion into his critical essays. But other equally significant English essayists of the same century, such as Charles Lamb or Walter Pater, or the French critic Hippolyte Taine, under an impassive mask, loved too, but differently. Still other nonfictional writers have been detached, seemingly aloof, or, like the 17th-century French epigrammatist La Rochefoucauld, sarcastic. Their intensity is of another sort.

Reality and imagination

      Prose that is nonfictional is generally supposed to cling to reality more closely than that which invents stories, or frames imaginary plots. Calling it “realistic,” however, would be a gross distortion. Since nonfictional prose does not stress inventiveness of themes and of characters independent of the author's self, it appears in the eyes of some moderns to be inferior to works of imagination. In the middle of the 20th century an immensely high evaluation was placed on the imagination, and the adjective “imaginative” became a grossly abused cliché. Many modern novels and plays, however, were woefully deficient in imaginative force, and the word may have been bandied about so much out of a desire for what was least possessed. Many readers are engrossed by travel books, by descriptions of exotic animal life, by essays on the psychology of other nations, by Rilke's notebooks or by Samuel Pepys's diary far more than by poetry or by novels that fail to impose any suspension of disbelief. There is much truth in Oscar Wilde (Wilde, Oscar)'s remark that “the highest criticism is more creative than creation and the primary aim of the critic is to see the object as in itself it really is not.” A good deal of imagination has gone not only into criticism but also into the writing of history, of essays, of travel books, and even of the biographies or the confessions that purport to be true to life as it really happened, as it was really experienced.

      The imagination at work in nonfictional prose, however, would hardly deserve the august name of “primary imagination” reserved by the 19th-century English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge to creators who come close to possessing semidivine powers. Rather, imagination is displayed in nonfictional prose in the fanciful invention of decorative details, in digressions practiced as an art and assuming a character of pleasant nonchalance, in establishing a familiar contact with the reader through wit and humour. The variety of themes that may be touched upon in that prose is almost infinite. The treatment of issues may be ponderously didactic and still belong within the literary domain. For centuries, in many nations, in Asiatic languages, in medieval Latin, in the writings of the humanists of the Renaissance, and in those of the Enlightenment, a considerable part of literature has been didactic. The concept of art for art's sake is a late and rather artificial development in the history of culture, and it did not reign supreme even in the few countries in which it was expounded in the 19th century. The ease with which digressions may be inserted in that type of prose affords nonfictional literature a freedom denied to writing falling within other genres. The drawback of such a nondescript literature lies in judging it against any standard of perfection, since perfection implies some conformity with implicit rules and the presence, however vague, of standards such as have been formulated for comedy, tragedy, the ode, the short story and even (in this case, more honoured in the breach than the observance) the novel. The compensating grace is that in much nonfictional literature that repudiates or ignores structure the reader is often delighted with an air of ease and of nonchalance and with that rarest of all virtues in the art of writing: naturalness.

Style

      The writing of nonfictional prose should not entail the tension, the monotony, and the self-conscious craft of fiction writing. The search for le mot juste (“the precise word”) so fanatically pursued by admirers of Flaubert and Maupassant is far less important in nonfictional prose than in the novel and the short story. The English author G.K. Chesterton (Chesterton, G.K.) (1874–1936), who was himself more successful in his rambling volumes of reflections and of religious apologetics than in his novels, defined literature as that rare, almost miraculous use of language “by which a man really says what he means.” In essays, letters, reporting, and narratives of travels, the author's aim is often not to overpower his readers by giving them the impression that he knows exactly where he is leading them, as a dramatist or a detective-story writer does. Some rambling casualness, apparently irrelevant anecdotes, and suggestions of the conclusions that the author wishes his readers to infer are often more effective than extreme terseness.

      There is also another manner of writing that is more attentive to the periodic cadences and elegance of prose, in the style of the ancient Roman orator Cicero (Cicero, Marcus Tullius). The 19th-century English essayist William Hazlitt praised the felicities of style and the refinements of the prose of the British statesman Edmund Burke (Burke, Edmund) (1729–97) as “that which went the nearest to the verge of poetry and yet never fell over.” A number of English writers have been fond of that harmonious, and rhetorical prose, the taste for which may well have been fostered not only by the familiarity with Cicero but also by the profound influence of the authorized version of the Bible (1611). Martin Luther's translation of the New Testament (1522) and of the Old Testament (1534) likewise molded much of German prose and German sensibility for centuries.

      In the 20th century that type of prose lost favour with American and British readers, who ceased to cherish Latin (Latin language) orators and Biblical prose as their models. In German literature, however, in which harmonious balance and eloquence were more likely to be admired, and in other languages more directly derived from Latin, a musical style, akin to a prolonged poem in prose, was cultivated more assiduously, as exemplified in Italian (Italian literature) in the writings of Gabriele D'Annunzio, in French in those by André Gide, and in German in Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge (The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge) by the poet Rainer Maria Rilke (Rilke, Rainer Maria). Such an elaborate style appears to be more easily tolerated by the readers in nonfictional writing, with its lack of cumulative continuity and, generally speaking, its more restricted size, than in novels such as Pater's Marius the Epicurean (1885) and occasionally in Thomas Mann's fiction, in which such a style tends to pall on the reader. Similarly, it is easier for the nonfictional prose writer to weave into his style faint suggestions of irony, archaisms, alliterations, and even interventions of the author that might prove catastrophic to credibility in fiction. Critics have argued that too close attention to style was harmful to the sweep necessary to fiction: they have contended that many of the greatest novelists, such as Dickens, Balzac, Dostoyevsky, and Zola at times “wrote” badly; assuredly, they treated language carelessly more than once. Essayists, historians, orators, and divines often affect a happy-go-lucky ease so as to put them on the same footing with the common reader, but they realize that language and style are vital. They must know what resources they can draw from vivid sensations, brilliant similes, balanced sentences, or sudden, epigrammatic, effects of surprise.

Author presence

      The one feature common to most authors of nonfictional prose (a few staid historians and even fewer philosophers excepted) is the marked degree of the author's presence in all they write. That is to be expected in epistolary literature, and, although less inevitably, in the essay, the travel book, journalistic reporting, and polemical or hortatory prose. Although the 17th-century French religious philosopher Pascal (Pascal, Blaise) hinted that “the ego is hateful,” the author's presence is still strongly felt. This presence endows their works with a personal and haunting force that challenges, converts, or repels, but hardly ever leaves the reader indifferent. Saint Paul (Paul, the Apostle, Saint)'s epistles owe their impact—perhaps second to none in the history of the Western world—to the self that vehemently expresses itself in them, showing no concern whatever for the niceties of Attic prose. In the treatises, discourses, and philosophical argumentation of the great writers of the Enlightenment, such as Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau, they frequently resort to the first person singular, which results in a vivid concreteness in the treatment of ideas. To think the abstract concretely, a precept reminiscent of the 18th-century philosophers, was also the aim of the 20th-century philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty when they naturalized Existentialist thought (Existentialism) in France. The growth of personal literature in its myriad shapes is one of the striking features of modern literary evolution.

      The very fact that the writer of nonfictional prose does not seek an imaginary projection to impart his vision, his anguish, and his delights to readers also underlines the nature of his intention. A school of critics has vigorously attacked “the intentional fallacy,” which leads biographers and some literary historians to ask what an artist intended before evaluating the completed work of art. But in a work of apologetics or of homiletics, in a work of history or of sociology, in a critical or even in a desultory and discursive essay, and certainly in aphorisms or maxims or both, the intention of the author remains omnipresent. This intention may be disguised under the mask of a parable, under the interlocutors of a philosophical dialogue, or under the admonitions of a prophet, but the reader is never oblivious of the thinker's intent. The reader has a sophisticated enjoyment of one who shares the creator's intent and travels familiarly along with him. He respects and enjoys in those authors the exercise of an intelligence flexible enough to accept even the irrational as such.

Approaches

      In terms of approach, that is, the attitude of the writer as it can be inferred from the writing, the distinguishing features of nonfictional prose writings are the degree of presence of the ego and of the use of a subjective, familiar tone. Such devices are also used, of course, by authors of fiction, but to a lesser extent. Similarly, the basic modes of writing—the descriptive, the narrative, the expository, and the argumentative—are found in both nonfictional literature and in fiction, but in different degrees.

The descriptive mode

      In nonfictional prose, essayists, moralists, naturalists, and others regularly evoked nature scenes. The most sumptuous masters of prose composed landscapes as elaborately as landscape painters. The French writer and statesman Chateaubriand (Chateaubriand, François-Auguste-René, vicomte de) (1768–1848), for example, who was not outstandingly successful in inventing plots or in creating characters independent from his own self, was a master of description; his writings influenced the French Romantic poets, who set the impassive splendour of outward nature in contrast to the inner anguish of mortals. The 19th-century English art critic John Ruskin (Ruskin, John) had a more precise gift of observation, as revealed in his descriptions of Alpine mountains and of the humblest flowers or mosses, but his ornate and sonorous prose was the climax of a high-flown manner of writing that later read like the majestic relic of another era. American nonfictional writers (American literature) of the same period such as Ralph Waldo Emerson (Emerson, Ralph Waldo) and Henry Thoreau (Thoreau, Henry David) scrupulously described the lessons of organization, of unity, and of moral beauty to be deciphered from the vicissitudes of nature. Russian essayists vied with novelists in their minute yet rapturous descriptions of the thaw releasing the torrents of spring or the implacable force of the long Northern winters. Writers more inclined to the observation of social life, in satirical sketches of the mechanically polite and artificial habitués of salons, helped the novel of social life come into existence in several Western countries.

Narrative

      The narrative element is less conspicuous in writing that does not purport to relate a story than in fictional works, but there is a role for narrative in letters, diaries, autobiographies, and historical writing. Most often, an incident is graphically related by a witness, as in letters or memoirs; an anecdote may serve to illustrate a moral advice in an essay; or an entertaining encounter may be inserted into an essay or a travel sketch. Digression here represents the utmost in art; it provides a relief from the persistent attention required when the author is pursuing his purpose more seriously. Similarly, such writing provides a pleasant contrast to the rigid structure of the majority of novels since the late 19th century. In historical writing, however, simplicity and clarity of narrative are required, though it may be interspersed with speeches, with portraits, or with moral and polemical allusions. In other forms of nonfictional prose, the meandering fancy of the author may well produce an impression of freedom and of truth to life unattainable by the more carefully wrought novel. Many writers have confessed to feeling relieved when they ceased to create novels and shifted to impromptu sketches or desultory essays. The surrealist essayists of the 20th century poured their scorn on detective fiction as the most fiercely logical form of writing. In contrast, the author of essays or other nonfictional prose may blend dreams and facts, ventures into the illogical, and delightful eccentricities.

Expository and argumentative modes

      The rules of old-fashioned rhetoric apply better to expository and argumentative prose than to the other modes. These rules were first set down in ancient Greece by teachers who elicited them from the smooth eloquence of Socrates, the impassioned and balanced reasoning of Demosthenes, and others. The ancient Romans went further still in codifying figures of speech, stylistic devices, and even the gestures of the orator (oratory). Such treatises played a significant part in the education of the Renaissance Humanists, of the classical and Augustan prose writers of 17th-century England and France, of the leaders of the French Revolution in the 18th century, and even in 19th-century historians and statesmen such as Guizot in France and Macaulay and Gladstone in Britain. But the sophisticated oratory of such 18th-century British orators as Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Edmund Burke, and Charles Fox or, during the 20th century, that of Winston Churchill, hardly seems attuned to audiences in the age of television.

      It has been suggested by students of German history that Adolf Hitler (Hitler, Adolf), in his vituperative speeches at Nuremberg in the 1930s, fascinated the Germans because they had been unaccustomed, unlike other Western nations, to eloquence in their leaders. If a large part of a population is illiterate, unending flows of eloquence may constitute a convenient means of educating the masses. Elsewhere, a more familiar and casual type of address from political leaders tends to be preferred in an era of mass media. The gift of a superior orator has been facetiously defined as that of saying as little as possible in as many words as possible. Like sermons, many types of formal address such as lectures, political speeches, and legal pleadings appear to be doomed as documents of literary value, as Burke's or Lincoln's orations and addresses were when they were learned by heart by the younger generations and helped mold the style and contribute to the moral education of men.

The essay

      In modern literatures, the category of nonfictional prose that probably ranks as the most important both in the quantity and in the quality of its practitioners is the essay.

Modern origins

      Before the word itself was coined in the 16th century by Montaigne and Bacon, what came to be called an essay was called a treatise, and its attempt to treat a serious theme with consistency deprived it of the seductive charm relished in the later examples of that form of literature. In this sense, the word “essay” would hardly fit the didactic tone of Aristotle's Rhetoric or his Metaphysics. There were, however, ancient masters of an early form of the essay, such as Cicero (Cicero, Marcus Tullius) discoursing on the pleasantness of old age or on the art of “divination”; Seneca, on anger or clemency; and Plutarch, more superficially and casually, on the passing of oracles. The relentless desire to analyze one's own contradictions, especially among Christians, who, like Saint Paul, were aware of their duality and of “doing the evil which they would not,” also contributed to the emergence of the essay. But Christian writing tended to be highly didactic, as may be seen in the work of Saint Augustine of the 5th century, or of the 12th-century theologian Abélard, or even in the Latin writings on “the solitary life” or on “the scorn of the world” by the 14th-century Italian poet Petrarch. Not until the Renaissance, with its increasing assertion of the self, was the flexible and deliberately nonchalant and versatile form of the essay perfected by Montaigne.

      Montaigne (Montaigne, Michel de), who established the term essay, left his mark on almost every essayist who came after him in continental Europe, and perhaps even more in English-speaking countries. Emerson made him one of his six Representative Men along with others of the stature of Plato, Shakespeare, and Goethe. Hazlitt (Hazlitt, William) lauded Montaigne's qualities as precisely those that “we consider in great measure English,” and another English romantic writer, Leigh Hunt (Hunt, Leigh), saw him as “the first man who had the courage to say as an author what he felt as a man.” And the 20th-century poet T.S. Eliot (Eliot, T.S.) declared him to be the most important writer to study for an insight into the literature of France. With Montaigne, the essay achieved for the first time what it can achieve better than any other form of writing, except perhaps the epistolary one: a means of self-discovery. It gave the writer a way of reaching the secret springs of his behaviour, of seizing the man and the author at once in his contradictions, in his profound disunity, and in his mobility. The essay was symbolic of man's new attitude toward himself, revelling in change, and hence in growth, and forsaking his age-old dream of achieving an underlying steadfastness that might make him invulnerable and similar to the gods. Now he set out to accept himself whole, with his body and his physical and behavioural peculiarities, and thereby repudiate medieval asceticism. He would portray his foibles and unworthiness, hoping to rise above his own mediocrity, or, at the other extreme, he would exalt himself in the hope that he might become the man he depicted. Montaigne in his essays pursued an ethical purpose, but with no pompousness or rhetoric. He offered an ideal that was adopted by his successors for centuries: perfecting man as a tolerant, undogmatic, urbane social being. But, unlike medieval Christian writers, he would not sacrifice to others the most dearly cherished part of himself. To others he would lend himself, but his personality and his freedom were his own, and his primary duty was to become a wiser human being.

      No essayist after Montaigne touched on so many varied aspects of life with such an informal, felicitous, and brilliant style. The later writers who most nearly recall the charm of Montaigne include, in England, Robert Burton, though his whimsicality is more erudite, Sir Thomas Browne, and Laurence Sterne, and in France, with more self-consciousness and pose, André Gide and Jean Cocteau.

Uses of the essay

      In the age that followed Montaigne's, at the beginning of the 17th century, social manners, the cultivation of politeness, and the training of an accomplished gentleman became the theme of many essayists. This theme was first exploited by the Italian Baldassare Castiglione (Castiglione, Baldassare) in his Il cortegiano (1528; The Courtier). The influence of the essay and of genres allied to it, such as maxims, portraits, and sketches, proved second to none in molding the behaviour of the cultured classes, first in Italy, then in France, and, through French influence, in most of Europe in the 17th century. Among those who pursued this theme was the 17th-century Spanish (Spanish literature) Jesuit Baltasar Gracián (Gracián, Baltasar) in his essays on the art of worldly wisdom.

      With the advent of a keener political awareness with the age of Enlightenment, in the 18th century, the essay became all-important as the vehicle for a criticism of society and of religion. Because of its flexibility, its brevity, and its potential both for ambiguity and for allusions to current events and conditions, it was an ideal tool for philosophical reformers. The Federalist Papers (Federalist papers) in America and the tracts of the French Revolutionaries, are among the countless examples of attempts during this period to improve the condition of man through the essay.

      The advantage of this form of writing was that it was not required to conform to any unity of tone or to similar strictures assigned to other genres since it was for a long time not even considered a genre. After ponderous apologies for traditional faith failed to repulse the onslaught of deism and atheism, traditionalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, such as Burke and Coleridge, abandoned unwieldy dogmatic demonstrations in favour of the short, provocative essay. In the defense of the past, it served as the most potent means of educating the masses. French Catholics, German pietists, and a number of individual English and American authors confided to the essay their dismay at what they saw as modern vulgarity and a breakdown of the coherence of the Western tradition. Essays such as Paul Elmer More's long series of Shelburne Essays (published between 1904 and 1935), T.S. Eliot's After Strange Gods (1934) and Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (1948), and others that attempted to reinterpret and redefine culture, established the genre as the most fitting to express the genteel tradition at odds with the democracy of the new world.

Journalism and provocation

      The proliferation of magazines (magazine) in the United States, and the public's impatience with painstaking demonstrations and polemics, helped establish the essay just as firmly as a receptacle for robust, humorous (humour) common sense, unpretentiously expressed, as in the writings of Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809–94). Creative writers resorted to it to admonish their compatriots when they seemed too selfishly unconcerned by the tragedies of the world. Archibald MacLeish (MacLeish, Archibald), for instance, did so in A Time to Speak (1941). Lewis Mumford, Allen Tate, and other literary and social critics became crusaders for moral and spiritual reform; others seized upon the essay for scathingly ironical and destructive criticism of their culture: for example, James Gibbons Huneker (Huneker, James Gibbons) (1860–1921), an admirer of iconoclasts and of egoists, as he called them, proposed European examples to Americans he deemed to be too complacent and lethargic; and, more vociferously still, H.L. Mencken (Mencken, H.L.) (1880–1956), a self-appointed foe of prejudices, substituted his own for those he trounced in his contemporaries.

      In other new countries, or in cultures acquiring an awareness of their own ambitious identity, the essay became semipolitical, earnestly nationalistic, and often polemical, playful, or bitter. Such essays sometimes succeeded in shaking the elite out of its passivity. In Uruguay, for example, José Enrique Rodó (Rodó, José Enrique) (1872–1917), in an analogy to the characters in Shakespeare's Tempest, compared what should be the authentic South American to the spirit Ariel, in a work thus entitled, in contrast to the bestial Caliban, representing the materialism of North America. In Canada Olivar Asselin (1874–1937) used the essay to advocate the development of a genuine French-Canadian literature (French literature). Among the older cultures of Europe, Salvatore Quasimodo (Quasimodo, Salvatore) (1901–68), the Italian poet and Nobel laureate, appended critical and hortatory essays to some of his volumes of verse, such as Il falso e vero verde (1956; “The False and True Green”). Other European heirs to this tradition of the essay include Stefan Zweig and Hugo von Hofmannsthal in Austria and Thomas Mann and Bertolt Brecht in Germany; their sprightly and incisive essays on the arts can be traced to the 19th century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer.

Entertainment

      One of the functions of literature is to please and to entertain; and the essay, as it grew into the biggest literary domain of all, did not lose the art of providing escape. Essayists have written with grace on children, on women, on love, on sports, as in Robert Louis Stevenson's collection Virginibus Puerisque (1881), or Willa Cather's pleasant reflections in Not Under Forty (1936). Ernest Renan (Renan, Ernest) (1823–92), one of the most accomplished French masters of the essay, found relief from his philosophical and historical studies in his half-ironical considerations on love, and Anatole France (France, Anatole) (1844–1924), his disciple, and hosts of others have alternated playful essays with others of high seriousness. Sports, games, and other forms of relaxation have not been so often or so felicitously treated. Izaak Walton's (Walton, Izaak) The Compleat Angler (1653), however, enjoys the status of a minor classic, and the best of the modern Dutch essayists, Johan Huizinga (Huizinga, Johan) (1872–1945), has reflected with acuteness on Homo ludens, or man at play. A Frenchman, Jean Prévost (1901–44), who was to die as a hero of the Resistance to the German occupation of France during World War II, opened his career as an essayist with precise and arresting analyses of the Plaisirs des sports (1925). But there are surprisingly few very significant works, except in chapters of novels or in short stories, on the joys of hunting, bullfighting, swimming, or even, since Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (Brillat-Savarin, Anthelme)'s overpraised essay, Physiologie du goût (1825; “The Physiology of Taste”) on gourmet enjoyment of the table.

Philosophy and politics

      Serious speculations, on the other hand, have tended to overburden the modern essay, especially in German and in French, and to weigh it with philosophy almost as pedantic as that of academic treatises, though not as rigorous. The several volumes of Jean-Paul Sartre (Sartre, Jean-Paul)'s Situations, published from 1947 on, constitute the most weighty and, in the first two volumes in particular, the most original body of essay writing of the middle of the 20th century. Albert Camus (Camus, Albert)' Mythe de Sisyphe (1942; Myth of Sisyphus) and his subsequent Homme révolté (1951; The Rebel) consist of grave, but inconsistent and often unconvincing, essays loosely linked together. Émile Chartier (1868–1951), under the pseudonym Alain, exercised a lasting influence over the young through the disjointed, urbane, and occasionally provoking reflections scattered through volume after volume of his essays, entitled Propos.

      Apart from philosophical speculation, which most readers prefer in limited quantities, the favourite theme of many modern essays has been speculation on the character of nations. It is indeed difficult to generalize on the national temper of a nation or on the characteristics of a given culture. The authors who have done it—Emerson in his essay on English Traits (1856), Hippolyte Taine in his studies of the English people, Alexis de Tocqueville in his Democracy in America (1835, 1840)—blended undeniable conclusions with controversial assertions. Rather than systematic studies, desultory essays that weave anecdotes, intuitions, and personal remarks, ever open to challenge, have proved more effective in attempting to delineate cultures. In the 20th century, the masters of this form of writing were among the most able in the art of essay writing: Salvador de Madariaga in Spanish, Hermann Keyserling in German, and Elie Faure in French. Some nations are much more prone than others to self-scrutiny. Several of the finest Spanish essayists were vexed by questions of what it meant to be a Spaniard, especially after the end of the 19th century when Spain was compelled to put an end to its empire. Angel Ganivet in his essay on Idearium español (1897; Spain: An Interpretation), Ortega y Gasset (Ortega y Gasset, José) in España invertebrada (1922; Invertebrate Spain), and Miguel de Unamuno (Unamuno, Miguel de) in almost every one of his prose essays dealt with this subject. A Spanish-born essayist, George Santayana (Santayana, George) (1863–1952), was one of the most accomplished masters of written English prose; because of his cosmopolitan culture and the subtlety of his insights, he was one of the most percipient analysts of the English and of the American character.

      Laments on the decline of the essay in the 20th century were numerous after the 1940s, when articles in most journals tended to become shorter and to strive for more immediate effect. As a result, the general reader grew accustomed to being attacked rather than seduced. Still, the 20th century could boast of the critical essays of Virginia Woolf in England, of Edmund Wilson in America, and of Albert Thibaudet and Charles du Bos in France, all of whom maintained the high standards of excellence set by their predecessors of the previous century. It is regrettable that, in the language in which the best modern essays have been written, English, the term “essay” should also have acquired the connotation of a schoolboy's attempts at elementary composition. For the essay requires vast and varied information, yet without pedantry or excessive specialization. It must give the impression of having been composed spontaneously, with relish and zest. It should communicate an experience or depict a personality with an air of dilettantism, and of love of composition, and it should make accessible to the reader knowledge and reflection and the delight of watching a fine mind at work. The essayist should possess the virtues that one of the most influential English essayists, Matthew Arnold (Arnold, Matthew), praised in Culture and Anarchy (1869): “a passion . . . to divest knowledge of all that was harsh, uncouth, difficult, abstract, professional, exclusive; to humanize it.”

History

      Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, history was the branch of literature in which the most expert and the most enduring prose was written. It only recovered its supreme rank in nonfictional prose in the 18th century. Earlier, however, at the beginning of the 16th century, in Florence, Italy, Niccolò Machiavelli (Machiavelli, Niccolò) and Francesco Guicciardini (Guicciardini, Francesco) prepared the way for history to become great literature by marrying it to the nascent science of politics and by enlarging its scope to include elements of the philosophy of history. In the 18th century Voltaire, tersely and corrosively, and Edward Gibbon (Gibbon, Edward), with more dignity, established history again as one of the great literary arts. In the 19th century, their lessons were taken to heart, as writers and readers realized that, in Thomas Carlyle (Carlyle, Thomas)'s words, “every nation's true Bible is its history.” In some nations, historians, together with epic and political poets, instilled into the people a will to recover the national consciousness that had been stifled or obliterated. Macaulay (Macaulay, Thomas Babington Macaulay, Baron)'s ambition, to see history replace the latest novel on a lady's dressing table, was endorsed as an eminently reasonable and beneficent ambition by scholars throughout the 19th century. After an eclipse during the first half of the 20th century, when erudition and distrust of elaborate style prevailed, the poetry of history was again praised by the most scrupulous practitioners of that discipline. Poetry, in that context, does not mean fiction or unfaithfulness to facts, or a mere prettification, which would be tantamount to falsification; rather, it is the recognition that, as historian G.M. Trevelyan (Trevelyan, G M) proclaimed, “The appeal of history to us all is in the last analysis poetic.” Few historians today would wholly agree with the once sacrosanct formula of Leopold von Ranke (Ranke, Leopold von) (1795–1886) that their task is to record the past as it really took place. They well know that, for modern history, facts are so plentiful and so very diverse that they are only meaningful insofar as the historian selects from them, places them in a certain order, and interprets them. After World War II, as history drew increasingly on sociology, anthropology, political and philosophical speculation, and psychoanalysis, the conviction that objectivity could be maintained by a scholar dealing with the past was questioned and in large measure renounced. The Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce (Croce, Benedetto)'s laconic warning that all history is contemporary history (i.e., bound to the historian's time and place, hence likely to be replaced by another one after a generation) came to be generally accepted. Nietzsche (Nietzsche, Friedrich), who had sharply questioned the historical methods of his German countrymen in the 1870s, stressed the need to relate history to the present and to present it in a living and beautiful form, if it is to serve the forces of life. “You can only explain the past,” he said, “by what is highest in the present.”

      In Germany, Italy, Spain, England, America, and most of all in France, where the vogue of sheer, and often indigestible, erudition was never wholeheartedly adopted, more literary talent may have gone into historical writing than into the novel or the short story. Many reasons account for the brilliance, and the impact, of this branch of nonfictional prose. Modern man has a powerful interest in origins—of civilization, of Christianity, of the world initiated by the Renaissance, or the French Revolution, or the rise of the masses. History invites an explanation of what is in terms of its genesis, not statically but in the process of becoming. The breadth of men's curiosity has expanded significantly since the 18th century, when belief in the absolutes of religious faith tended to be supplanted by greater concern for the relative world in which men live, move, and exist. A primary factor in the increasing importance of history was the bewilderment concerning the revolutions that occurred in or threatened so many countries in the latter part of the 20th century. As fiction, philosophy, and the exact sciences failed to provide a plausible explanation, many anguished readers turned to the record of brutal change in earlier periods. The historians who addressed themselves to those immense subjects, with their myriad ramifications, often composed monumental works of a synthetical character, such as those of Arnold Toynbee (Toynbee, Arnold) or Henri Pirenne (Pirenne, Henri), but they also cultivated the essay. Sometimes these essays appeared as short and pregnant volumes of reflections, such as Isaiah Berlin's Historical Inevitability (1954), sometimes in collections of articles that first appeared in magazines.

Doctrinal, philosophical, and religious prose

      The question of how much of doctrinal writing, dealing with faith, ethics, and philosophy, can be called literature can only be answered subjectively by each reader, judging each case on its own merits. There have been philosophers who felt in no way flattered to be included among what they considered unthinking men of letters. The prejudice lingers in some quarters that profundity and clarity are mutually exclusive and that philosophy and social sciences therefore are beyond the reach of the layman. On the other hand, many writers, while often profound and fastidiously rigorous in their thought, such as Paul Valéry, have vehemently objected to being called philosophers. Nonetheless, a vast number of philosophical works owe their influence and perhaps their greatness to their literary merits.

Philosophers and thinkers

      In periods when philosophical speculation became very abstruse, as in Germany in the 19th century, men of letters often acted as intermediaries between the highly esoteric thinkers and the public. Much of the impact of the erudite 19th-century German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friederich Hegel (Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich) was due to the more easily approachable writings of those who took issue with him, such as the Existentialist thinker Søren Kierkegaard, or to those who reinterpreted him, such as Karl Marx. Similarly, the thoughts of 20th-century German phenomenologist Edmund Husserl (Husserl, Edmund) achieved wider circulation by receiving more literary expression in the writings of Jean-Paul Sartre (Sartre, Jean-Paul). In modern Europe, the men of letters of Germany were long the most deeply imbued with abstract philosophy. After World War II, however, French writers appeared to take on a zest for abstract speculation, for turgid prose, and for the coining of abstruse terms. Much of French literature in the years after the war has been characterized as “literature as philosophy.”

      A very few philosophers have reached greatness by evolving a coherent, comprehensive system, ambitiously claiming to account for the world and man. Such harmonious constructions by the greatest philosophers, such as Descartes and Spinoza, might be compared to epic poems in sometimes embracing more than there actually appears to be between heaven and earth. These philosophical systems were conceived by powerful imaginative thinkers whose creative abilities were not primarily of an aesthetic order. The ability and the ambition to produce such systems has appeared in very few countries or cultures. The Slavic, the Spanish, and Spanish-American cultures have been richer in thinkers than in philosophers; that is, in men who reflected on the problems of their own country, who attempted to evolve a philosophy from history, or who applied a broad view to moral or political questions, rather than in men who constructed abstract philosophical systems.

      More and more in the 20th century, the sciences that were called in some countries “social” and in others “humane” replaced the all-encompassing philosophical systems of past ages. In Spain, Miguel de Unamuno (Unamuno, Miguel de) (1864–1936) and José Ortega y Gasset (Ortega y Gasset, José) (1883–1955) marked the thought and the sensibility of Spanish-speaking peoples far more than systematic philosophers might have done. Their writing, which disdains impeccable logic, is no less thought-provoking for being instinct with passion and with arresting literary effects.

Russian essayists

      In Russia, the doctrinal writers whose thought was most influential and often most profound were also those whose prose was most brilliant. They generally centred their speculations on two Russian preoccupations: the revival of Christian thought and charity in the Orthodox faith; and the relationship of Russia to Western Europe, branded by the Slavophiles as alien and degenerate. The consistency of ancient Greek and later Western thinkers, from Aristotle through Descartes, was of scant concern to them, but in the vitality of their style, some of these Russian theorists were masters, whose turbulent, paradoxical ideas were taken to heart by novelists, poets, and statesmen. Among these masters, Aleksandr Herzen (Herzen, Aleksandr Ivanovich) (1812–70) combined romantic ardour and positivism, formulating a passionately Russian type of socialism; he left his mark in autobiography, political letters, fiction, and chiefly philosophy of history in From the Other Shore (1851). Nikolay Danilevsky (Danilevsky, Nikolay Yakovlevich) (1822–85), a scientist who turned to philosophy, attempted to convince his compatriots that the manifest destiny of their country was to offer a purer and fresher ideology in lieu of that of the decadent West. V.V. Rozanov (Rozanov, Vasily Vasilyevich) (1856–1919) was an apocalyptic prophet preaching an unusual interpretation of Christian religion; a number of his intuitions and passionate assertions are found in the novel The Possessed (1871–72), by Fyodor Dostoyevsky (Dostoyevsky, Fyodor), whose own nonfictional prose is of considerable quality and conviction. The strangest and most contradictory, but also the most brilliant prose writer, among those thinkers who were torn between East and West, between a jealous Orthodox faith and the attraction of Catholic Rome, was Vladimir Solovyov (Solovyov, Vladimir Sergeyevich) (1853–1900). He blended the most personal type of visionary mysticism with an incisive humour in a manner reminiscent of Kierkegaard. His philosophical essay-dialogue-treatise, Three Conversations on War, Progress and the End of Human History (1900), is representative of the nonfictional Russian prose that, while not widely known outside Russia, is as revealing as the Russian novel of the permanent contradictions and aspirations of the Slavic character.

American and French writers

      The role of nonfictional prose in the American literature of ideas is significant, as can be seen in several of Emerson (Emerson, Ralph Waldo)'s philosophical essays and addresses; in Walt Whitman's Democratic Vistas (1871); in William James's pleasantly written essays on religious experience and on sundry psychological and ethical topics; in George Santayana's dexterous and seductive developments on beauty, on nature, on poets, on the genteel tradition, all envisaged with ironical sympathy. Irving Babbitt (1865–1933), Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), and Lewis Mumford are among the many American writers who, in the 20th century, maintained the tradition of writing on abstract or moral themes with clarity and elegant simplicity. Earlier, Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin had expressed their lay philosophy in a manner they wished to be widely accessible.

      In France the tradition haute vulgarisation—“higher vulgarization” or popularization—never died and was seldom slighted by the specialists. There, and to a slightly lesser extent in Britain, much of the most valuable writing in prose was an elucidation of the view of life underlying the creations of eminent men in many fields. Such doctrinal writing, expounding innermost convictions and sometimes representing a diversion from more intensive pursuits, constitutes a by no means negligible portion of the writings of the philosopher Bertrand Russell, of the poet William Butler Yeats, and others. The novelist or the poet may well use nonfictional prose to purge his own anger, to give vent to his vituperation against his confrères, and to relieve his imagination of all the ideological burden that might otherwise encumber it. D.H. Lawrence (Lawrence, D.H.) preserved the purity of his storyteller's art by expressing elsewhere his animadversions against Thomas Hardy or Sigmund Freud. Albert Camus stripped his fiction and short stories of the ideological musings found in his philosophical volumes. Marcel Proust (Proust, Marcel) succeeded in incorporating many abstract discussions of the value of art, love, and friendship in his very original and loose type of fiction. The masters of nonfictional prose in French in the 20th century were those thinkers who were also superb stylists and who deemed it a function of philosophy to understand the aesthetic phenomenon: Henri Bergson (1859–1941), Paul Valéry (1871–1945), and Gaston Bachelard (1884–1962). No more poetical advocate of reverie arose in the 20th century than La Poétique de la rêverie (1960; The Poetics of Reverie) and the posthumous collection of essays, Le Droit de rêver (1970; “The Right to Dream”), by Bachelard, who was also a philosopher of science. A major influence on him, as on several earlier poets endowed with profound intellect, such as Baudelaire and Valéry, was Edgar Allan Poe (Poe, Edgar Allan), the impact of whose essays on poetics, on cosmology, and on dreams and reveries has been immense and beneficent. More than a century after his death, many of Poe's American compatriots have conceded that the storyteller and the poet in Poe counted for less, as his European admirers had divined, than the writer of critical and doctrinal prose rich in dazzling intuitions.

Theological writers

      Although lectures, articles, and other prosaic admonitions have tended to take their place, sermons, funeral orations, allegories, and the visions of eternal punishment brandished by theologians constitute some of the most unforgettable prose. This form of nonfictional prose literature dates from before the Christian Era; Jewish thought and style were molded by commentaries on the Old Testament and compilations of the wisdom of the sages. Later, and more nearly literary, works of this nature include Sebastian Brant's didactic, poetical, and satirical Narrenschiff (1494; Ship of Fools), and the mystic writings of Jakob Böhme (1575–1624) in Germany, the moving sermons of Jón Vídalín (1666–1720) in Iceland. In England, Richard Baxter (1615–91) and John Bunyan (1628–88) were among the most eloquent of the 17th-century Puritans who composed doctrinal works of literary merit; along with the epic poet John Milton (Milton, John) (1608–74), whose prose works hardly count for less than his poetry, they exercised a powerful influence on the English language through their doctrinal prose. Their contemporary, the Anglican Jeremy Taylor (Taylor, Jeremy) (1613–67), wrote the most sustained and dignified prose of an age that, on the continent, would be called Baroque. A little later, in northern Europe, the Norwegian Ludvig Holberg (Holberg, Ludvig, Friherre Holberg) (1684–1754), who spent most of his life in Denmark and became best known as a comic writer, also advised his contemporaries how to live morally in his Ethical Thoughts and other didactic treatises. The Swede Emanuel Swedenborg (Swedenborg, Emanuel) (1688–1772), less gifted as a writer but far more original in his blend of mysticism and science, outshone all previous Scandinavians in impressing the imagination of other Europeans. No less influential, Søren Kierkegaard (Kierkegaard, Søren) (1813–55), because of his stimulating ambiguities, his bold treatment of traditional theology and philosophy, and his extraordinary ability to write vivid, biting, and provoking prose, was, a century after his death, one of the most potent forces in the literature and thought of Western civilization.

      Many 20th-century readers experienced a feeling of remoteness in this kind of doctrinal writing, which stemmed in part from a lack of vital interest in the beliefs it embodies and from a coolness toward religious dogmatism or fanaticism. During that century intolerance shifted from religion to the domain of politics. But estrangement from that rich literary heritage was due also to a distrust of high-flown eloquence. Cotton Mather (Mather, Cotton)'s Essays to do good (1710) has few readers in present-day New England, despite that region's Puritan tradition, and Jonathan Edwards (Edwards, Jonathan) (1703–58), a writer of great spiritual warmth and imaginative style who was the first of the great prose writers of America, is admired today chiefly by specialists.

      A less sonorous style, one that does not ring so monotonously ornate to the reader's ears, is now preferred. In Spain, Antonio de Guevara (Guevara, Antonio de) (c. 1480–1545), a preacher who was at his best in his familiar and satirical moments, and St. Teresa of Avila (Teresa of Ávila, Saint) (1515–82), in her records of her mystical ecstasies, have withstood the changing tides of taste. The French also succeeded in maintaining their appreciation of their two greatest religious writers, Pascal (Pascal, Blaise) and Bossuet (Bossuet, Jacques-Bénigne), at the very top of the nonfictional prose writers; both are still revered and occasionally imitated. Pascal took over traditional theology and treated it as literature; his unfinished Pensées have exercised far more influence than the rationalism of the greatest French philosophers on the sensibilities of the French. Bossuet's orations reveal the magnificent but refrigerating decorum that seems inseparable from eulogies of the dead—a genre that precludes full sincerity and cultivates tremulous emotion to a dangerous degree. Bossuet's sermons and treatises, however, include masterpieces of simple, terse, direct oratory, which show him as the majestic defender of the unity of faith, of absolutism, and of tradition. His was the last significant endeavour in the 17th century to arrest the flow of relativism and of rebellious individualism, which had engulfed Western civilization with the Renaissance, the Reformation, and Humanism. The two most brilliant writers of religious prose in France in the 20th century were Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre) (1881–1955), a poetical writer with a luxury of images, and Simone Weil (Weil, Simone) (1909–43), more terse and restrained; they steered a middle course between dogmatism and humility in luring the lay reader to their ardent expressions of conviction.

Political (political philosophy), polemical, and scientific prose

      In the 20th century, political, economic, and social thought attempted to reach scientific precision through the use of quantitative data, processing machines, and mathematical formulas. Through such means, other disciplines eventually were elevated to the status of sciences. Literature lost a great deal as a result of this scientific urge, and political and economic thought may have lost even more; for example, the ability to be understood, and perhaps applied, by men of affairs and leaders of nations. The result has been that momentous decisions may be made independent of political theory, which is more often called upon to explain them afterward. Albert Einstein (Einstein, Albert) remarked that politics is much more baffling and difficult than physics and that consequences of errors in politics are likely to make far more difference to the world than the miscalculations of science. Politics is often defined as the art of the possible; it is also an art of improvisation, since the fleeting occasions must be grasped when they appear, and risks must be taken without a full array of scientific data. Like military action, however, political action can be studied in historical writings and in the literary testimonials of men who ran the affairs of their country. Thucydides, Cicero, Caesar, Milton, Burke, Napoleon, and Jefferson were such men of action who were also endowed with uncommon literary gifts. In varying degrees, Benjamin Disraeli, Winston Churchill (Churchill, Sir Winston), Woodrow Wilson, Clemenceau, Lenin, and de Gaulle (Gaulle, Charles de) owed some of their insight and effectiveness to their literary efforts.

Changing interpretations

      Authors, however, are by no means infallible in dealing with the unpredictable course of political life. Interpreting and channelling public opinion proved insuperably difficult, for example, to Alphonse de Lamartine in the revolutionary period of 1848–49 in France, to the bookish Aleksandr Kerensky during the 1917 Revolution in Russia, and to a number of brilliant writers who attempted to guide the Spanish Republic in the 1930s. Crowds often can be moved more readily by vapid, repetitious, or inflammatory speeches than by profound or wise counsel. Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Churchill's speeches during Britain's “finest hour” early in World War II, and de Gaulle's lofty eloquence regarding the crises of three decades in France were admired less when they were delivered than afterward. As they are collected, studied, and engraved in the mental makeup of millions of future citizens, such speeches have an effectiveness second to no other form of nonfictional prose. Novels may exercise immense influence through the acute social criticism they embody, but their impact upon the sensibility and the behaviour of their readers is probably less than that of political prose.

      Although the Spanish language cannot boast of any political thinker comparable to Plato, Machiavelli, or Rousseau, it may boast a large number of fine writers on political topics. Generally, these writers reveal a restrained and terse style, like the poets of Spain, the Latin country least addicted to inflation of language. Garcilaso de la Vega (1539–1616), the son of an Inca mother, wrote with courage and talent of the Peruvians and other cultures of the New World cruelly wrecked by their Catholic conquerors. The Argentinian Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino) (1811–88) fought in battle and with his pen against his country's dictator and left a masterpiece of social insight, written with rare effectiveness, Facundo (1845). Miguel Ángel Asturias (Asturias, Miguel Ángel) (1899–1974), from Guatemala, scathingly depicted the evils of dictatorship in Central America. Like many others in South America, where versatility is not uncommon, Francisco de Miranda (Miranda, Francisco de) (1750–1816) of Venezuela was both a political writer and a statesman.

      Italy, after Machiavelli, failed to produce political writers of very great eminence, even during its liberation and unification in the 19th century. The universal thinker Benedetto Croce (Croce, Benedetto) (1866–1952), however, had the courage to publish during the Fascist era the most impassioned defense of liberty in volumes such as La storia come pensiero e come azione (1938; History as the Story of Liberty). Another Italian—but from another political direction—Antonio Gramsci (Gramsci, Antonio) (1891–1937), one of the most intelligent exponents of Communism in western Europe, was aware of the vital significance of literary form to spread political ideas. He bitterly deplored the lack of a popular literature in his country that reflected the morality and sentiment of the people.

      In France political speculation was more comprehensive: few political theoricians have proved as influential as the philosophers of the Enlightenment, especially Montesquieu and Rousseau. It was the good fortune of the French that during their Revolution at the end of the 18th century and throughout the 19th century, its keenest political minds were also writers of admirable prose. Tocqueville's observations became a sacred text for many a student of America and of pre-Revolutionary France. Since the French seldom give ideas serious consideration unless they are well expressed, however, it was a misfortune that most political speculation after the Napoleonic age was written by gifted, often brilliant, conservatives, such as Joseph de Maistre, Auguste Comte, Frédéric Le Play, Renan, Taine, and Charles Maurras. Those advocating a socialistic view, such as Jean Jaurès and the more elegant and genteel Léon Blum, failed to express their theories in classic prose. The level of political comment in the magazines and newspapers in France is consistently high, but the writers tend to be either too clear-sighted or too arrogant to grant their statesmen a chance to act. “Fair play” is an untranslatable phrase in French, and politics in France, unlike some other countries, is never regarded as a game or sport. Rather, it is a passionate affair of the heart and intellect, conducted in a mood of intransigence. The English essayist Walter Bagehot (Bagehot, Walter) (1826–77), observing the French at the time of the 1851 coup d'état, commented wryly that “the most essential quality for a free people, whose liberty is to be progressive, permanent and on a large scale, is much stupidity . . . . Stupidity is nature's favorite resource for preserving steadiness of conduct and consistency of opinion.”

      English and American political works, from the 17th century on, excel all others; they constitute the richest form of nonfictional prose in the English language. John Milton's Areopagitica (1644) and his other political pamphlets are monuments of political prose that survive to this day as classics. Edmund Burke (Burke, Edmund)'s Letter to a Noble Lord (1796) was praised a century and a half after its composition as the greatest piece of invective in the English language. William Godwin (Godwin, William)'s Political Justice (1793) does not compare in the majesty of its prose to those supreme models, but it did inflame Shelley and other men of letters of the time. Walter Bagehot wrote equally well on literature, politics, and economics, and The Economist (Economist, The), which he edited, was the best-written weekly of its kind in any language. John Stuart Mill and Thomas Carlyle also helped to maintain the tradition of political and social thought expressed as literature through the 19th century.

Modern times

      Polemical prose significantly declined in the modern era. Few moderns express the rage for invective seen in the verse of satirists such as the ancient Roman Juvenal or Alexander Pope in 17th-century England or even in the writings of Christian disputants such as Martin Luther. Voltaire rejoiced in flaying not only his enemies but also some, such as Montesquieu and Rousseau, who were fundamentally in agreement with him in the fight against the religion of his age. Literary polemics of a high order were employed against the cultural imperialism of the French in Gotthold Lessing's Hamburgische Dramaturgie (1767–69; Hamburg Dramaturgy). Beside these examples, the polemics of more recent periods seem tame, or else gross and venomous. Later practitioners of the literature of insult include Émile Zola (Zola, Émile), particularly in his celebrated article on the Dreyfus affair, J' Accuse (1898). Later writers, however, often overreach themselves; their rhetoric sounds vapid and their epigrams strained.

      The rift between the two cultures, scientific and humanistic, is probably not as pronounced or final as it has been alleged to be. About the time the division was enunciated, in the mid-20th century, it was possible to point to a number of eminent scientists who were also masters of prose writing—Henri Poincaré, Jean Rostand, and Gaston Bachelard in France; Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead in England; and René Dubos and Robert Oppenheimer in the U.S. The peril for scientists who undertake to write for laymen appears to lie in a temptation to resort to florid language and to multiply pretentious metaphors and elaborate cadences in their prose. Some scientists who wrote on astronomy, on anthropology, and on geology have not altogether escaped that pitfall: Sir James Jeans, Loren Eiseley, Sir James Frazer, Teilhard de Chardin. The marriage of the “two cultures” in one mind, which was no less concerned with scientific truth than with beauty of form, was found frequently in older times; Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galileo, Newton, and Goethe all showed strong interest in both. The popularization of science reached a level of a lucid and elegant art with the writings of Bernard de Fontenelle (1657–1757) in French, Francesco Algarotti (1712–64) in Italian, and later, with a masterpiece of scientific rigour expressed in flexible and precise prose, Introduction à l'étude de la médecine expérimentale, by the physiologist Claude Bernard (1813–78).

Other forms

Reportage

       journalism often takes on a polemical cast in countries in which libel laws are not stringent. Polemical journalism flourished in continental Europe when a journalist's insults could be avenged only in a duel; one of the great journalists of this heroic era of the press in France, Armand Carrel, died in such a duel with another journalist in 1836. Most journalistic literature, however, deserves none of the ill-repute that is associated with its more polemical expressions. Rather, it is a remarkably elastic form, as adaptable to sarcasm and the puncturing of illusions as to reflection, subtle persuasion, and infectious geniality. Among the eminent writers who explored its possibilities in the 18th century, Joseph Addison (Addison, Joseph) and Richard Steele (Steele, Sir Richard) offered models of polished English prose in the journals The Tatler (Tatler, The) and The Spectator (Spectator, The), and Jonathan Swift and Oliver Goldsmith also used it effectively in England. In France Voltaire, the novelist Abbé Prévost, and the dramatist Pierre-Carlet de Marivaux all found effective use for the form. By the 19th century, most eminent men of letters attempted to broaden their audiences by means of articles and essays in the press, and in the 20th century, the influence of journalism pervaded the most important works of some authors. Some of the works of G.B. Shaw and H.G. Wells, for example, were reminiscent of journalism in the manner in which they sought topical controversy and challenged social and political prejudices. Many of the finest essays of Virginia Woolf (Woolf, Virginia), John Middleton Murry, and Aldous Huxley represented British literary journalism at its most intelligent level. In America, the more heterogeneous public to which authors must address themselves and, later, the competition of the audiovisual media, were not propitious to the flowering of literary journalism of that type. In a more ephemeral genre, that of political reflections couched in clear, pungent style, Walter Lippmann (Lippmann, Walter) composed models of commentaries on politics and ethics.

      The more self-centred and passionate writers seldom succeeded in journalistic prose as well as those who could forget their ego and adapt their style to a public that wanted to be entertained, moved, or convinced, perhaps, but whose attention span extended no further than the 15 minutes of a train ride or of a hurried breakfast. In France, Proust dreamt for years of appearing as a journalist on the first column of the journal Le Figaro. But he and his contemporaries Gide, Claudel, and Valéry, and, later, the imperious and nervous André Malraux, did not conform to the limitations of the newspaper article. On the other hand, Colette, Paul Morand, and François Mauriac proved conspicuously successful in writing the brief, gripping, taut article dear to readers of many of the better continental dailies and weeklies.

      The insidious appeal of journalistic writing to thinkers, novelists, and poets is similar to the siren charm of conversation for the author who enjoys talking brilliantly at dinner parties. As Oscar Wilde ruefully remarked, conversationalists and journalists, intent on reporting on the ephemeral, pour whatever genius is theirs into their lives, and only their talent into their works.

Aphorisms (aphorism) and sketches

      Authors of maxims and aphorisms, on the contrary, strive for the brevity of inscriptions on medals and public buildings and for a diamond-like resistance to the devastation of time upon diffuse and padded writing. This form is periodically revived. In modern letters, in the latter half of the 20th century, a condensed and enigmatic sort of prose was preferred to poetry by several poets, who invested their sensations, their illuminations, or their reflections with the mystery and éclat of aphorisms. Among the French, who have always favoured the maxim for philosophical, psychological, and ethical advice, a great poet, René Char (Char, René), came to be more and more fascinated by that epigrammatic form, harking back to the ancient Greek philosopher whom he admired most, Heracleitus. Char found in the aphorism a means of “pulverizing language” and of allowing the isolated words or groups of words, freed from rhetoric and from the exigencies of clarity, to emerge like rocks from a sunken archipelago. Other French prose writers, including Camus (Camus, Albert), Char's warmest admirer, and Malraux, likewise scattered through their prose works striking aphorisms that summed up the sense of a situation or the experience of a lifetime. French novels, from the 18th century through the 20th, reflect the influence of the unforgettable maxims coined by the 17th-century moralists Pascal, La Rochefoucauld, and La Bruyère. The novelist could never long resist the seduction of brevity, the challenge of condensing wisdom into a neat, usually bitter, formula, which usually suggested to the reader not to expect overmuch from life and to take revenge upon its little ironies by denouncing it in advance.

      Maxims and other pointed and epigrammatic phrases of the sort the ancient Romans called sententiae can become too sophisticated or can too obviously strive for effect. This form of expression reached its point of perfection, balancing profundity and solidity of content with pointedness of form, with the moralists of the 17th and 18th centuries in France, whom Nietzsche ranked above all other writers. They included Pascal and La Rochefoucauld and, later, Sébastien Chamfort (Chamfort, Sébastien-Roch Nicolas) (1740/41–94), a satirical pessimist often quoted by Schopenhauer and Joseph Joubert (1754–1824). This form, even more than poetry, represents the most economical means of communicating long experience and for imparting moral advice. In a very few words, or at most a few lines, an aphorism may enclose enough matter for the plot of a novel. It may trounce the prejudices of snobbery more vigorously than a long, meandering novel of manners. The greatest of the 19th-century poets, Goethe, Novalis, Leopardi, Vigny, and Baudelaire, as well as painters such as Delacroix, Cézanne, Degas, and later Braque, cherished the epigrammatic, incisive form of expression. One of the advantages of the aphorism or pensée is that it can easily produce an impression of depth when it may be only a commonplace pungently expressed. Another is that it allows several approaches to a subject by the skilled prose writer. If he is of a fiery temperament, prone to enthusiasms and lashing out in wrath against what he deems to be false, he can, like Nietzsche, embrace contradictions and sponsor opposed attitudes. If Epictetus, Pascal, and Nietzsche had expressed their reflections consistently and systematically, their works would probably be forgotten. Nonetheless, as Pascal shrewdly remarked, the aphoristic prose style is, of all the manners of writing, the one that engraves itself most lastingly in the memories of men.

      That form, in verse and in prose, probably constitutes the most widespread form of literature. It is found in many nations that long lived without fiction, epics, or even popular poetry. It is found in ancient sayings that interlard the speeches of the 20th-century leaders both of the U.S.S.R. and of China; in the book of Proverbs of the Bible; in the Qurʾān; in the Afrikaans language of South Africa in the 20th-century writings of J. Langenhoven. Proverbs, maxims, riddles, and even conundrums make up a large part of African folklore. African animal tales also provide lessons in the form of aphorisms that are neither as platitudinous nor as didactic as Aesop's fables.

      Portraits and sketches are a form of literature that thrives in cultures in which the court, the salon, or the café plays an important role. The few examples left by the ancient Greeks, such as by Theophrastes, pale beside the vivid portraits of real individuals drawn by the ancient Roman historian Tacitus and by the impassioned orator Cicero. In the Classical age of 17th-century France, the character sketch was cultivated in the salons and reached its summit with La Bruyère. That form of writing, however, suffered from an air of artificiality and of virtuosity. It lacked the ebullience and the imagination in suggesting telltale traits that characterize the portraits of the duc de Saint-Simon (1675–1755). Collections of sketches and characters, however, tend to strike the reader as condescending and ungenerous insofar as the writer exempts himself of the foibles he ridicules in others.

      The humorous (humour) article or essay, on the other hand, is a blend of sympathy and gentle pity with irony, a form of criticism that gently mocks not only others but the mocker himself. Humour strikes deep roots in the sensibility of a people, and each nation tends to feel that its own brand of humour is the only authentic one. Its varieties of humorous writing are endless, and few rules can ever be formulated on them. Humorous literature on the highest literary level includes that of Cervantes in Spain, of Sterne, Lamb, and Thackeray in England, of Jean Paul in Germany, and of Rabelais, Montaigne, and Voltaire in France. Romantic authors have, as a rule, been too self-centred and too passionate to acquire the distance from their own selves that is essential to humour. In the 20th century, some of the most original examples of what was called the “inner-directed smile” were present in the works of the Argentine Jorge Luis Borges (Borges, Jorge Luis) and by one of the writers he admired most, the English essayist G.K. Chesterton (Chesterton, G.K.) (1874–1936). In both writers, and in other virtuosos of the intellectual fantasy, there was a persistent refusal to regard themselves as being great, though greatness seemed to be within their reach. The humorist would not take himself seriously. Chesterton hid the depth of his religious convictions, while Borges facetiously presented his prodigious erudition and indulged in overelaborate and flowery prose. Borges liked to put on and take off masks, to play with labyrinths and mirrors, but always with a smile. By sketching what appeared to be fanciful portraits rather than overtly fictional stories, he created a half-imaginary character whose presence haunts all his writings—that of the author himself.

Dialogues (dialogue)

      The dialogue form has long been used as a vehicle for the expression of ideas. It is especially cherished by authors eager to eschew the forbidding tone of formality that often accompanies the expression of serious thought. The writer of a dialogue does not directly address his public, but instead revels in the multiple facets of ideas. By playing this dialectical game he can appear to present contrary views as their respective proponents might and then expose the errors of those he opposes, leading the readers to accept his own conclusions. The advantages of the dialogue are clear: ideas that might have remained abstruse and abstract become concrete and alive. They assume dramatic force. A constant element in the dialogue is irony; etymologically, the term derives from a form of interrogation in which the answer is known beforehand by the questioner. The earliest models of the genre, by the ancient Greeks Plato and Lucian, have never been excelled. Sophistry is another element of the dialogue. In Plato and in the dialogues of Pascal (Pascal, Blaise)'s Provinciales (1656–57; “Provincial Letters”), the protagonist plays with the naiveté of his opponents, who always end by surrendering. The writer of a dialogue cannot affect the same casual and self-indulgent attitude as the author of a personal essay since the characters and their statements must be plausible. Nor can he pursue an argument consistently, as he might in a critical, historical, or philosophical essay. Something must persist in the dialogue of the spontaneity and the versatility of an actual conversation among witty and thoughtful people.

      There was much seriousness and occasionally some pedantry in early dialogues in several literatures. The dialogues of Bardesanes (154–222) in Syriac, rendered into English as On Fate, are on the subject of the laws of the country. A hundred years earlier, Lucian, who was also Syrian, proved himself a master of flowing and ironical Greek prose in his satirical dialogues. The Italian Renaissance writer Pietro Aretino (Aretino, Pietro) (1492–1556) proved himself the equal of Lucian in verve in his Dialogues using the same mold and the same title as Lucian. Others who used the dialogue form included Castiglione and Pietro Bembo (1470–1547) in Italy (Italian literature); and in Spain (Spanish literature) Juan Luis Vives (1492–1540), León Hebreo (1460–c. 1521), and Juan de Valdés (c. 1500–41), who treated questions of faith and of languages in dialogues. The genre flourished in the 18th century: Lessing, Diderot (Diderot, Denis), and the Irish philosopher George Berkeley. Diderot's works largely consist of sprightly, rambling, and provocative discussions between the various aspects of his own remarkable mentality. Bold conjectures, determined onslaughts on prejudices, insights into physiology and biology, and erotic fantasies all enter into his dialogues. In the 19th century a number of complex literary personalities, who were capable of accepting the most diverse, and even conflicting points of view, such as Renan and Valéry, had a predilection for the dialogue. Among the devices used by authors of dialogue—many of whom lacked the sustained inventiveness required by fiction—was to attribute their words to the illustrious dead. The French prelate Fénelon (Fénelon, François de Salignac de La Mothe-), for example, composed Dialogues des morts (1700–18), and so did many others, including the most felicitous master of that prose form, the English poet Walter Savage Landor (Landor, Walter Savage), in his Imaginary Conversations (1824) and Pentameron (1837).

Travel and epistolary literature

      The literature of travel has declined in quality in the age when travel has become most common—the present. In this nonfictional prose form, the traveller himself has always counted for more than the places he visited, and in the past, he tended to be an adventurer or a connoisseur of art, of landscapes, or of strange customs who was also, occasionally, a writer of merit. The few travel books by ancient Greek geographers, such as Strabo and Pausanias of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, are valuable as a storehouse of remarks on ancient people, places, and creeds. Travel writing of some literary significance appears in the late-13th-century writings of Marco Polo. Works of a similar vein appeared in the 17th century in the observations of Persia two French Huguenots, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier and Jean Chardin, whose writings were lauded by Goethe (Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von). Many books of documentary value were later written by English gentlemen on their grand tour of the Continent. The 18th-century Italian egotist Casanova and his more reliable and sharper compatriot Giuseppe Baretti (1719–89) also produced significant travel writings.

      The form comprises many of the finest writings in prose during the Romantic age (Romanticism). Not only were the Romantics more alive to picturesqueness and quaintness but also they were in love with nature. They were eager to study local colours and climates and to depict them in the settings for their imaginative stories. Also, travel gave the Romantic writer the illusion of flight from his wearied self. The leisurely record of Goethe's journey to Italy in 1786–88 counts more readers than most of his novels. Pismo russkogu puteshestvennika (1791–92; Eng. trans., Letters of a Russian Traveler, 1789–1790, 1957) by Nikolay Karamzin (Karamzin, Nikolay Mikhaylovich) is one of the earliest documents in the development of Russian Romanticism. Ivan Goncharov (Goncharov, Ivan Aleksandrovich) (1812–91), the Russian novelist who stubbornly limited his fiction to his own geographical province, recorded in Frigate Pallas his experience of a tour around the world. Nowhere else in the whole range of literature is there anything comparable to Peterburg (1913–14), by a virtuoso of poetic style, Andrey Bely; it is a travel fantasy within a city that is both real and transfigured into a myth. Neither James Joyce's Dublin nor Balzac's Paris is as vividly recreated as the former Russian capital in Bely's book. Other travel writers of note include the multinational Lafcadio Hearn (Hearn, Lafcadio) (1850–1904), who interpreted Japan with sensitivity and insight. Earlier, two other Westerners wrote on Asia, the English historian Alexander W. Kinglake (1809–91), in Eothen (1844), and, more incisively, the French diplomat Joseph-Arthur, comte de Gobineau (Gobineau, Joseph-Arthur, comte de) (1816–82); both blended a sense of the picturesqueness of the East with shrewdness in the interpretation of the people. One of the most thoughtful and, in spite of the author's excessive self-assurance, most profound books on Asia is Das Reisetagebuch eines Philosophen (1919; Travel Diary of a Philosopher), by the German (German literature) thinker Hermann Keyserling (Keyserling, Hermann Alexander, Graf von) (1880–1946). With an insatiable interest in countries, Keyserling also interpreted the soul of South America and, less perceptively, analyzed the whole spectrum of European nations. Among the thousands of travel books on Italy, there are a few masterpieces of rapturous or humorous prose: in English, the writings of D.H. Lawrence (Lawrence, D.H.) on Sardinia, on Etruscan Italy, and on the Italian character are more lucid and less strained than other of his prose cogitations. Venice, “man's most beautiful artifact,” as Bernard Berenson called it, inspired Rousseau, Chateaubriand, Maurice Barrès, Anatole France, and hundreds of other Frenchmen to write some of their finest pages of prose. After World War I, there was a distinct yearning for new possibilities of salvation among war-ridden Europeans, dimly descried in Asia, in Russia, or in America, and travel literature assumed a metaphysical and semireligious significance. The mood of the writers who expressed this urge was somewhat Byronic; they were expert at poetizing the flight from their own selves. Blaise Cendrars (Cendrars, Blaise) (1887–1961) in his novel Emmène-moi au bout du monde (1956; “Take Me Away to the End of the World”), epitomizes the urge to seek adventures and a rediscovery of oneself through strange travels. The very theme of travel, of the protagonist being but a traveller on this earth, has been, from Homer's Odyssey onward, one of the most laden with magical, and symbolical, associations in literature. Countless authors have played moving and delicate variations on it.

      Of all the branches of nonfictional prose, none is less amenable to critical definition and categorization than letter writing (epistle). The instructions of the ancient grammarians, which were repeated a thousand times afterward in manuals purporting to teach how to write a letter, can be reduced to a few very general platitudes: be natural and appear spontaneous but not garrulous and verbose; avoid dryness and declamatory pomp; appear neither unconcerned nor effusive; express emotion without lapsing into sentimentality; avoid pedantry on the one hand and banter and levity on the other. Letters vary too much in content, however, for generalizations to be valid to all types. What is moving in a love letter might sound indiscreet in a letter of friendship; an analysis of the self may fascinate some readers, while others prefer anecdotes and scandal. La Bruyère (La Bruyère, Jean de), at the end of the 17th century, remarked that women succeed better than men in the epistolary form. It has also been claimed that a feminine sensibility can be seen in the letters of the most highly acclaimed male masters of this form, such as Voltaire, Mirabeau, Keats, and Baudelaire. Advice to practitioners of the art of letter writing usually can be expressed in the often-quoted line in Shakespeare's Hamlet: “To thine own self be true.” The English biographer Lytton Strachey (Strachey, Lytton) (1880–1932), a copious and versatile letter writer himself, wrote: “No good letter was ever written to convey information, or to please its recipient: it may achieve both those results incidentally; but its fundamental purpose is to express the personality of the writer.” There are, however, numerous and even contradictory ways of expressing that personality.

 Although critics have issued endless disquisitions on the craft of fiction and other genres, they have generally remained silent on the epistolary genre, though it has sometimes been the form of prose that outlives all others. Ever since the expression of the writer's personality became one of the implicit purposes of writing in the 18th century, the letters of such eminent authors as Diderot, Rousseau, Byron, and Flaubert have probably offered at least as much delight as any of their other writings. Impressive monuments of scholarship have been erected on the presentation of the complete letters of Thackeray, George Eliot, Swinburne, and Henry James. The literatures of France and England are notably richer in letter writing of the highest order than are the literatures of the United States and Germany. Contrary to many pessimistic predictions regarding the effect on letter writing of modern means of communication, such as the telephone, together with an apparently increasing penchant for haste, some of the richest, most revealing, and most thoughtful letters of all times were written in the 20th century; those of the English writers Katherine Mansfield and D.H. Lawrence are paramount among them.

Personal literature

      The cult of the ego (that is, a preoccupation with self-analysis) is a late development in the history of literature. There were, to be sure, men in ancient times who were absorbed in their own selves, but there is almost no autobiographical literature (autobiography) from ancient Greece and, in spite of Cicero and Pliny the Younger, there is little from ancient Rome. The confession, made as humble as possible and often declamatory in the exposition of the convert's repented sins, was an outgrowth of Christianity; masters of confessional literature were Saint Augustine, Petrarch, and the English Puritans. Autobiographical writing took a different form in the 18th century in the work of men who would have agreed with Goethe that personality is the most precious possession. After the publication of Rousseau's Confessions in France in 1781, the passion for looking into one's heart (and other organs as well) spread to other literatures of western Europe. Many a novelist thereafter kept a precise record of his cogitations, anxieties, and harrowing moments of inability to create. Poets and painters, including Delacroix, Constable, and Braque, have often done the same. There is only a very tenuous separation between fiction of this sort from nonfiction; the introspective novel in the first person singular has much in common with a diary, or a volume of personal reminiscences. In his long novel À la recherche du temps perdu (1913–27; In Search of Lost Time), Proust (French literature) revealed himself in three ways—as the author, as the narrator, and as the characters who are projections of his own self. An autobiography once was ordinarily written toward the end of a life, as a fond recollection or an impassioned justification of a lifetime's deeds. More and more, it has come to be written also by men and women in their prime. The names of writers whose autobiographical writings have become classics is legion. Henry Adams (1838–1918) owes his place in American letters (American literature) chiefly to his book on his education; in 20th-century English letters, Osbert and Sacheverell Sitwell, Leonard Woolf, and Stephen Spender may similarly survive in literature through autobiographical works. André Gide, always uncertain of his novelist's vocation, felt more at ease laying bare the secret of his life in autobiographies and journals.

      Although imaginative fiction has probably suffered from excesses of introspection and of analyses of the author's own artistic pangs, knowledge of man's inner life has been enriched by such confessions. The most profound truths on human nature, however, have been expressed not in the form of autobiography but in its transposition into fiction. Readers generally have found more truth in literature created from the possibilities of life than from the personal record of the one life that the author has lived.

      In conclusion, the variety of nonfictional prose is prodigious. It can be written on almost any conceivable subject. Almost any style may be used, from casual digressions or sumptuous and sonorous sentences to sharp maxims and elliptical statements. But nonfictional prose seldom gives the reader a sense of its being inevitable, as does the best poetry or fiction. Nonfictional prose seldom can answer positively the question that Rilke and D.H. Lawrence suggest that any potential writer should ask: Would I die if I were prevented from writing?

Henri M. Peyre Ed.

Additional Reading

On the essay, see R.D. O'Leary, The Essay (1928), which analyzes the essay theoretically and examines several categories of essayists. David Daiches gives a brief and lively introduction to his anthologies of essays: A Century of the Essay: British and American (1951), and More Literary Essays (1968). On letter writing in general, the best piece is by Gustave Lanson, in French: Introduction to Choix de lettres du XVII^e siècle, 5th rev. ed. (1898), reprinted in Lanson's Essais de méthode, de critique et d'histoire littéraire, pp. 243–258 (1965). On personal literature, the diary, autobiography, and the questions raised by those forms of prose, see Henri Peyre, Literature and Sincerity (1963).

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