mathematics, South Asian

mathematics, South Asian

Introduction

      the discipline of mathematics as it developed in the Indian (India) subcontinent.

      The mathematics of classical Indian civilization is an intriguing blend of the familiar and the strange. For the modern individual, Indian decimal place-value numerals may seem familiar—and, in fact, they are the ancestors of the modern decimal number system. Familiar too are many of the arithmetic and algebraic techniques involving Indian numerals. On the other hand, Indian mathematical treatises were written in verse form, and they generally do not share modern mathematics' concern for rigorously structured formal proofs. Some historians of mathematics have deplored these aspects of the Indian tradition, seeing in them merely a habit of rote memorization and an inability to distinguish between true and false results. In fact, explanations and demonstrations were frequently added by later commentators, but these were sometimes described as “for the slow-witted.” For the traditional Indian teacher of mathematics, a demonstration was perhaps not so much a solid foundation for the student's understanding as a crutch for the weak student's lack of understanding. The Indian concept of ganita (Sanskrit: “computation”) was a form of knowledge whose mastery implied varied talents: a good memory, swift and accurate mental arithmetic, enough logical power to understand rules without requiring minute explanations, and a sort of numerical intuition that aided in the construction of new methods and approximations.

      This article covers the history of mathematics in South Asia (modern India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh) from ancient times through the beginning of the colonization of the region by Great Britain. During and after the 19th century, Indian mathematics merged with the modern Western stream of mathematics. Thus, for later mathematical developments in this region, see mathematics: Mathematics in the 19th and 20th centuries (mathematics).

Ancient traces

Vedic number words and geometry
      Sanskrit, the classical language of India and the chief medium for its premodern mathematical texts, maintained a strictly oral literary tradition for many centuries. Even after writing was introduced, the traditional writing materials, such as palm leaves, birch bark, and (later) paper, did not last long in the South Asian climate. The earliest surviving Sanskrit references to mathematical subjects are some number words in the Vedas (Veda), ancient sacred texts that were passed down by recitation and memorization. (The oldest surviving Veda manuscript dates from the 16th century.) For example, an invocation in the Yajurveda (“Veda of Sacrifice”) includes names for successive powers of 10 up to about 1012—well beyond the thousands and ten thousands familiar to other ancient cultures. Although the Indian number system seems always to have been decimal, in the Satapatha Brahmana (c. 1000 BCE; “Vedic Exegesis of a Hundred Paths”) there is an interesting sequence of divisions of 720 bricks into groups of successively smaller quantities, with the explicit exclusion of all divisors that are multiples of numbers which are relatively prime to 60 (i.e., their only common divisor is 1). This is reminiscent of the structure of ancient Babylonian sexagesimal division tables and may indicate (as do some later astronomical texts) the influence of the base-60 mathematics of Mesopotamia.

      The people who left these traces of their thinking about numbers were members of the Brahman class, priestly functionaries employed in the preparation and celebration of the various ritual sacrifices. The richest evidence of their mathematical activity is found in the several 1st-millennium-BCE Sulbasutras (“Cord-Rules”), collections of brief prose sentences prescribing techniques for constructing the brick fire altars where the sacrifices were to be carried out. Using simple tools of ropes and stakes, the altar builders could produce quite sophisticated geometric constructions, such as transforming one plane figure into a different one of equal area. The recorded rules also indicate knowledge of geometric fundamentals such as the Pythagorean theorem, values for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter (i.e., π), and values for the ratio of the diagonal of a square to its side (√2). Different shapes and sizes of sacrificial altars were described as conferring different benefits—such as wealth, sons, and attainment of heaven—upon the sponsor of the sacrifice. Perhaps these ritual associations originally inspired the development of this geometric knowledge, or perhaps it was the other way around: the beauty and harmony of the geometric discoveries were sacralized by integrating them into ritual.

The post-Vedic context
      During the rise of Buddhism and Jainism after 500 BCE, the connection between mathematical and religious thought persisted. But instead of altar constructions for animal sacrifices, which Buddhist and Jain principles rejected, mathematics supplied a framework for cosmological and philosophical schemes. Jain authors in particular employed immense numbers (even infinity) in elaborate and vast models of the universe. These new religions, as well as the older Vedic religion—by this time mostly shorn of ritual animal slaughter and more akin to modern Hinduism—also required mathematical techniques for astronomical models in order to maintain their calendars. Some of these techniques, such as the use of sexagesimal units and employing linear “zigzag” functions to represent seasonal changes in the duration of daylight, seem to have been inspired by Mesopotamian sources that reached northwest India via the Achaemenian dynasty (Achaemenid Dynasty).

      Other applications of mathematics, such as in commerce and administration, must also have flourished at this time, although only occasional brief allusions survive. For instance, a Buddhist text (c. 1st century BCE) by Vasumitra mentions merchants' “counting pits,” where tokens in a row of shallow depressions kept track of units, hundreds, and thousands (a tens pit may have been included but is not specified). Using these as a simile for the changeable aspects of unchanging realities, Vasumitra says, “When [the same] clay counting-piece is in the place of units, it is denoted as one, when in hundreds, one hundred.”

Indian numerals and the decimal place-value system
 These centuries around the turn of the millennium also left some physical evidence concerning the forms of written numerals. The above-mentioned allusion to interchangeable tokens in counting pits suggests a form of decimal place value. However, inscriptions on monuments and deed plates reveal that early Indian numeral systems (e.g., the Brahmi (Brāhmī) numerals; see figure—>) were not place-valued; rather, they used different symbols for the same multiple of different powers of 10. Because epigraphical styles tend to be conservative and the number of known examples is not large, it is hard to tell exactly when and how the transition was made to a purely place-value system—indeed, different systems must have coexisted for many years. But decimal place value must have been in use (at least among mathematical professionals) no later than the early 1st millennium CE. This is illustrated, for example, in a 3rd-century-CE Sanskrit adaptation of a Greek astrological text that uses the Indian “concrete number” system, where names of things stand in for numbers associated with them—e.g., “moon” for 1, “eye” for 2, “Veda” for 4, “tooth” for 32, and so on. In this way, the compound “moon-Veda-eye-moon” would be read as 1,241, implying that the reader automatically assumed a strictly decimal place-value representation. See also numerals and numeral systems.

The “classical” period
      The founding of the Gupta dynasty in 320 CE is sometimes used as a convenient marker for the start of “classical” Indian civilization. For a while, considerable political consolidation and expansion took place within the subcontinent and beyond its shores to Southeast Asia, while direct contact with the West lessened after the heyday of trade with Rome. An increasing number of complete treatises on mathematical subjects survived from this period, beginning about the middle of the 1st millennium, in contrast to the scattered allusions and fragments of the ancient period.

The role of astronomy and astrology
      Greek mathematical models in astronomy and astrology appeared in India following the invasion of Alexander the Great. These models were integrated with existing Indian material to produce an extremely fruitful system of Sanskrit mathematical astronomy and astrology, known as jyotisa. The intellectual place of ganita, according to the canons of Sanskrit literature, was located within jyotisa, which in turn was identified as one of the six Vedangas (“limbs of the Veda”), whose purpose was to support the proper performance of Vedic rituals. As a result, much of our knowledge of classical Indian mathematics is supplied by astronomical texts. Of course, there were many nonastronomical applications of ganita as well. Buddhists, Jains, and Hindus all valued mathematical astronomy for practical uses such as timekeeping, calendrics, and astrology and also ascribed to it intellectual and spiritual importance.

      Among the earliest of these works that have been preserved are the foundational treatises of two major astronomical schools: the Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (Aryabhata I) (c. 500 CE) and the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (628; “Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma”) of Brahmagupta. Little is known of these authors. Aryabhata lived in Kusumapura (near modern Patna), and Brahmagupta is said to have been from Bhillamala (modern Bhinmal), which was the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. The “schools” that grew from their works were not physical institutions but rather textual lineages, built up over the subsequent centuries by the successive works of other scholars. Although members of different schools frequently criticized the astronomical parameters and techniques preferred by their rivals, their fundamental mathematical knowledge was largely the same.

      The oldest surviving detailed survey of that knowledge is the first section of the Aryabhatiya, titled Ganita. Its verses are devoted to a mélange of mathematical topics ranging from extraction of square and cube roots to plane and solid geometry, simple proportions, construction of a sine table, summation of series, solution of quadratic equations (quadratic equation), and solution of indeterminate equations of the first degree (equations of the type ax − by = c).

      Brahmagupta collected his mathematical basics into two chapters of his treatise. Chapter 12, also called “Ganita,” discusses rules for the fundamental operations on integers and fractions as well as for series, proportions, and geometry. Chapter 18 deals with indeterminate equations of the first and second degrees and with algebra techniques for linear and quadratic equations (including rules for sign manipulation and the arithmetic of zero). Trigonometric rules and tables are stated in astronomical chapters that employ them, and another chapter deals briefly with calculations relating to prosody.

      Both the Aryabhatiya and, apparently, an early text of the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta school entered the Muslim world and were translated into Arabic near the end of the 8th century, profoundly influencing the development of Islamic mathematical astronomy. The Indian decimal place-value numerals had been introduced into western Asia earlier, and the arithmetic operations involving them became widespread under the name “Indian computation.” The techniques called by Arabic speakers al-jabr (“algebra”) also may have been influenced by early Indian methods, although they do not reflect the Indian mathematicians' routine acceptance of negative numbers or their later highly developed notation.

Classical mathematical literature
      Almost all known Sanskrit mathematical texts consist mostly of concise formulas in verse. This was the standard format for many types of Sanskrit technical treatises, and the task of making sense out of its compressed formulas was aided in all its genres by prose commentaries. Verse rules about mathematics, like those in any other subject, were designed to be learned by heart, but that does not necessarily mean that nothing was expected of the student beyond rote memorization. Frequently the rules were ambiguously expressed, apparently deliberately, so that only someone who understood the underlying mathematics would be able to apply them properly. Commentaries helped by providing at least a word-by-word gloss of the meaning and usually some illustrative examples—and in some cases even detailed demonstrations.

      Verse works on mathematics and astronomy faced the special challenge of verbally representing numbers (which frequently occurred in tables, constants, and examples) in strict metrical formats. “Concrete numbers” seem to have been devised for just that purpose. Another useful technique, developed somewhat later (about 500 CE), was the so-called katapayadi system in which each of the 10 decimal digits was assigned to a set of consonants (beginning with the letters k, t, p, and y), while vowels had no numerical significance. This meant that numbers could be represented not only by normal-sounding syllables but by actual Sanskrit words using appropriate consonants in the appropriate sequence. In fact, some astronomers constructed entire numerical tables in the form of katapayadi sentences or poems.

      The original physical appearance of these mathematical writings is more mysterious than their verbal content, because the treatises survive only in copies dating from much later times and reflecting later scribal conventions. There is a striking exception, however, in the Bakhshali manuscript, found in 1881 by a farmer in his field in Bakhshali (near modern Peshawar, Pakistan). Written in a variant of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit on birch bark, most likely about the 7th century, this manuscript is the only known Indian document on mathematics from this early period; it shows what the mathematical notation of that time and place actually looked like. The 10 decimal digits, including a dot for zero, were standard, and mathematical expressions were written without symbols, except for a square cross “+” written after negative numbers. This notation probably comes from the Indian letter for r, which stands for the Sanskrit word rhna (“negative”). Syllabic abbreviations—such as yu for yuta (“added”) and mu for mula (“root”)—indicated operations on quantities.

      Because there are so few surviving physical representatives of mathematical works dating from earlier than the mid-2nd millennium, it is difficult to say when, where, and how some of these notational conventions changed. In later texts the writing of equations was formalized so that both sides had the same number and kinds of terms (with zero coefficients where necessary). Each unknown was designated by a different syllabic abbreviation, typically standing for the name of a colour, a word meaning “unknown,” or (in word problems) the name of the commodity or other thing that the unknown represented. The practice of writing a square cross after a negative number was generally replaced by that of putting a dot over it.

The changing structure of mathematical knowledge
      Conventions of classification and organization of mathematical subjects seem to have evolved rapidly in the second half of the 1st millennium. Brahmagupta's two chapters on mathematics already hint at the emerging distinction between pati-ganita (arithmetic; literally “board-computations” for the dust board, or sandbox, on which calculations were carried out) and bija-ganita (algebra; literally “seed-computations” for the manipulation of equations involving an unknown quantity, or seed); these were also called “manifest” and “unmanifest” calculation, respectively, alluding to the types of quantities that they dealt with. Pati-ganita comprised (besides definitions of basic weights and measures) eight “fundamental” operations of arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring, square-root extraction, cubing, and cube-root extraction; these were supplemented by techniques for reducing fractions and solving various types of proportions. The operations were applied to problems dealing with mixtures (unequal composition of various elements), series, plane and solid geometry, and the triangular geometry of shadows. Formulas for finding areas and volumes, reckoning interest, summing series, solving quadratic equations, and solving permutations and combinations (later expanded to include magic squares (magic square)) were part of the standard pati-ganita tool kit.

      Bija-ganita was sometimes called “sixfold” because it excluded problems involving the cube root or cube of an unknown (although procedures for cubing algebraic expressions were known). It covered techniques for manipulating signs and coefficients of unknown quantities as well as surds (square roots of nonsquare integers), rules for setting up and solving equations up to second order in one or more unknowns, and rules for finding solutions to indeterminate equations of the first and second degree.

Mahavira and Bhaskara II
      The pati-ganita and bija-ganita systems of arithmetic and algebra are more or less what is found in the comparatively few Sanskrit treatises that deal exclusively with mathematics (all, apparently, composed after the middle of the 1st millennium). The content and organization of the topics varies somewhat from one work to another, each author having his own ideas of what concepts should be stressed. For instance, the 9th-century Ganita-sara-sangraha (“Compendium of the Essence of Mathematics”) by Mahavira reflects the Jain cast of his erudition in details such as the inclusion of some of the infinitesimal units of Jain cosmology in his list of weights and measures. Mahavira entirely omitted addition and subtraction from his discussion of arithmetic, instead taking multiplication as the first of the eight fundamental operations and filling the gap with summation and subtraction of series. On the other hand, the best-known of all works on Indian arithmetic and algebra, the 12th-century Lilavati (“The Beautiful”) and the more advanced Bijaganita, by Bhaskara II (Bhāskara II), followed the conventional definition of the eight operations. Bhaskara asserted, however, that the “Rule of Three” (of proportionality) is the truly fundamental concept underlying both arithmetic and algebra:

Just as this universe is pervaded by Vishnu…with his many forms…in the same way, this whole type of computation is pervaded by the [rule of] three quantities.

      Bhaskara's two works are interesting as well for their approaches to the arithmetic of zero. Both repeat the standard (though not universal) idea that a quantity divided by zero should be defined simply as “zero-divided” and that, if such a quantity is also multiplied by zero, the zeros cancel out to restore the original quantity. But the Bijaganita adds:

In this quantity also which has zero as its divisor there is no change even when many [quantities] have entered into it or come out [of it], just as at the time of destruction and creation when throngs of creatures enter into and come out of [him, there is no change in] the infinite and unchanging [Vishnu].

      This suggests that the quantitative result of dividing by zero was considered to be an infinite amount, possibly reflecting greater sophistication of these concepts in the more advanced Bijaganita.

      Much additional mathematical material was dealt with in Sanskrit astronomical treatises—for example, trigonometry of chords, sines, and cosines and various kinds of numerical approximation, such as interpolation and iterative rules.

Teachers and learners
      Almost every known mathematical author also wrote works on jyotisa, or astronomy and astrology. This genre was so closely linked with that of ganita that it was not always clear to which of them a particular text belonged; for example, Bhaskara's Lilavati and Bijaganita were often considered to be chapters of his astronomical magnum opus, Siddhanta-siromani (“Crest-Jewel of Astronomical Systems”). These astronomical works were primarily aimed at students and scholars pursuing astronomy, astrology, and calendrics as their hereditary occupation (generally Hindu Brahmans (Brahman) or scholar-monks of the heterodoxies). However, the need for more general instruction in ganita must certainly have affected a much broader segment of the population. Sample problems in mathematical texts (usually phrased in the second person as though addressed to a student) frequently discuss commercial transactions and often include vocatives such as “merchant” or “best of merchants,” suggesting that the intended audience included members of the mercantile class.

      Furthermore, some problems contain feminine vocatives such as “dear one” or “beautiful one,” particularly in the Lilavati of Bhaskara, which later legend holds to have been named after, and written for, the author's daughter. There is a reference in a 15th-century text to certain mixture problems posed by mathematicians to ladies of the court, and many classical lists of the kalas, or civilized arts, include certain kinds of mathematical recreations, sometimes just mathematics in general, or even astronomy. Though the available details are very sparse, refined education for many upper-class people of both sexes was apparently expected to include some mathematics.

The school of Madhava in Kerala
 Some of the most fascinating mathematical developments in India in the 2nd millennium—indeed, in the history of mathematics as a whole—emerged from the now-famous school of Madhava in Kerala on the Malabar Coast, a key region of the international spice trade. Madhava himself worked near the end of the 14th century, and verses attributed to him in the writings of his successors testify to his brilliant contributions on such topics as infinite series and the use of infinitesimal quantities. The work of these mathematicians anticipated several discoveries of the later European analysts, including power series for the sine, cosine, and arctangent (see table—>) which were also used to obtain π to 11 decimal places. Generations of Madhava's followers—in particular Jyesthadeva, Nilakantha, and Sankara—supplied ingenious geometric demonstrations of these mathematical ideas. This remarkable school also provides one of the few known examples within Indian mathematics of a continuous chain of identified direct teacher-pupil contacts extending over the course of centuries, from Madhava in the late 1300s through at least the early 1600s.

Exchanges with Islamic and Western mathematics
      Meanwhile, in the northern parts of India, invasion, war, and religious and caste exclusivity did not prevent a blending of Indian and Islamic mathematics in encounters between astronomers, particularly at the imperial Mughal (Mughal Dynasty) courts. Islamic scientific works (mostly in Persian) were collaboratively translated into Sanskrit and vice versa. Concepts and results from Greco-Islamic spherical trigonometry (trigonometry), astronomical tables, and mathematical instruments thus found their way into Sanskrit jyotisa.

      Similar practices at the start of Western colonization in the 16th century introduced such topics as logarithms (logarithm) and heliocentrism into a few Sanskrit texts. Even after the colonial policy of basing “native education” on an English curriculum was established in the 19th century, some scholars continued to recast foreign mathematics in the form of traditional Sanskrit verse treatises. However, this work was overshadowed by the rise of Indian mathematical research and mathematical societies on the lines of Western models. For the most part, by the end of the 19th century the river of Indian ganita had been fully merged into the ocean of modern mathematics.

Kim Plofker

Additional Reading
The following 19th- and 20th-century classic translations of seminal Sanskrit mathematical texts are still widely relied on: Brahmegupta and Báhscara, Algebra, with Arithmetic and Mensuration, trans. by Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1817, reissued 1973); M. Rangacarya, The Ganita-sara-sangraha of Mahaviracarya: With English Translation and Notes, trans. by David Eugene Smith (1912); Walter Eugene Clark, The Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy, trans. from Sanskrit (1930–83); and Bibhutibhusan Datta and Avadhesh Narayan Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics: A Source Book, 2 vol. (1935, reissued 2001).S.N. Sen and A.K. Bag, The Sulbasutras of Baudhayana, Apastamba, Katyayana, and Manava: With Text, English Translation, and Commentary (1983), is a modern compilation of several Sulbasutras that contain geometry. Takao Hayashi, The Bakhshali Manuscript: An Ancient Indian Mathematical Treatise (1995), discusses in detail his translation of the surviving portions of the manuscript and other sources for ancient Indian arithmetic. T.A. Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medieval India (1979, reissued 1999), includes some of the work of the Kerala school.Kim Plofker

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Universalium. 2010.

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