poultry processing

poultry processing

Introduction

      preparation of meat from various types of fowl (poultry) for consumption by humans.

      Poultry is a major source of consumable animal protein. For example, per capita consumption of poultry in the United States has more than quadrupled since the end of World War II as the industry has developed a highly efficient production system. Chickens (chicken) and turkeys (turkey) are the most common sources of poultry; however, other commercially available poultry meats come from ducks, geese, pigeons, quails, pheasants, ostriches, and emus.

Characteristics of poultry
       Nutrient composition of roasted or broiled poultry cuts (per 100 grams)Poultry is derived from the skeletal muscles of various birds and is a good source of protein, fat, and vitamins and minerals in the diet. The Table (Nutrient composition of roasted or broiled poultry cuts (per 100 grams)) shows the nutrient composition of several types of poultry.

Classification of birds
      Birds bred for poultry production are generally grown for a particular amount of time or until they reach a specific weight. Rock Cornish hens, narrowly defined, are a hybrid cross specifically bred to produce small roasters; in the marketplace, however, the term is used to denote a small bird, five to six weeks old, that is often served whole and stuffed. Seven-week-old chickens are classified as broilers or fryers, and those that are 14 weeks old as roasters.

      The fat content of poultry differs in several ways from that found in red meat. Poultry has a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids (fatty acid) compared with saturated fatty acids. Both turkey and chicken contain about 30 percent saturated, 43 percent monounsaturated, and 22 percent polyunsaturated fatty acids. The high levels of unsaturated fatty acids make poultry more susceptible to rancidity through the oxidation of the double bonds in the unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids, on the other hand, do not contain double bonds in their hydrocarbon chains and are resistant to oxidation. However, this fatty acid ratio has led to the suggestion that poultry may be a more healthful alternative to red meat.

      In birds fat is primarily deposited under the skin or in the abdominal cavity. Therefore, a significant amount of the fat can be removed from poultry by removing the skin before eating.

Microbial contamination
      Poultry provides an excellent medium for the growth of microorganisms. The principal spoilage bacteria found on poultry include Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, Acinetobacter, and Moraxella. In addition, poultry often supports the growth of certain pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria, such as Salmonella.

      Potential causes of contamination of poultry during the slaughtering and processing procedures include contact of the carcass with body parts that contain a high microbial load (e.g., feathers, feet, intestinal contents), use of contaminated equipment, and physical manipulation of the meat (e.g., deboning, grinding). Prevention of microbial contamination involves careful regulation and monitoring of the slaughtering and processing plants, proper handling and storage, and adequate cooking of raw and processed poultry products.

Slaughtering procedures

Preslaughter handling
      When the birds have reached “harvest” time, they are generally taken off of feed and water. This allows their digestive tracts to empty and reduces the potential for contamination during processing.

      At night the birds are caught by specially trained crews and placed into plastic or wooden transport cages. The birds are then transported to the slaughterhouse, where the trucks are often kept between sets of fans to ventilate the cages.

      In the next step the birds are removed from the cages and transferred to continuously moving shackles where they are suspended by both legs. The transfer is often done in a dark room illuminated by a red light; the birds are not sensitive to the red light and this helps to keep them calm.

      The handling and transfer of birds both on the farm and at the slaughterhouse can be stressful. Stress can have negative effects on the quality of the final meat product, and therefore efforts are constantly being made to improve the preslaughter processes.

Slaughtering
Stunning and killing
      After the birds have been transferred to the moving shackles, they are usually stunned by running their heads through a water bath that conducts an electric current. Stunning produces unconsciousness, but it does not kill the birds. The birds are killed either by hand or by a mechanical rotary knife that cuts the jugular veins and the carotid arteries at the neck. Any birds not killed by the machine are quickly killed by a person with a knife assigned to the bleed area. The birds are permitted to bleed for a fixed amount of time, depending on size and species (e.g., 1 1/2 minutes for broilers). Any bird that is not properly bled will be noticeably redder after feather removal and will be condemned.

      Following bleeding, the birds go through scalding tanks. These tanks contain hot water that softens the skin so that the feathers can be removed. The temperature of the water is carefully controlled. If retention of the yellow skin colour is desired, a soft-scald is used (about 50° C or 122° F). If a white bird is desired, a higher scald temperature is used, resulting in the removal of the yellow pellicle. Turkeys and spent hens (egg-laying birds that have finished their laying cycles) are generally run at higher temperatures—59° to 60° C (138° to 140° F).

Defeathering
      The carcasses then go through the feather-picking machines, which are equipped with rubber “fingers” specifically designed to beat off the feathers. The carcasses are moved through a sequence of machines, each optimized for removing different sets of feathers. At this point the carcasses are usually singed by passing through a flame that burns off any remaining feathers.

      An extra process, called wax dipping, is often used for waterfowl, since their feathers are more difficult to remove. Following the mechanical feather picking, the carcasses are dipped in a melted, dark-coloured wax. The wax is allowed to harden and then is peeled away, pulling out the feathers at the same time. The wax is reheated and the feathers are filtered out so that the wax can be reused. This process is usually performed twice.

      The blood and feathers accumulated during these early steps are generally collected and rendered to make blood meal and feather meal. The feathers from ducks and geese are often carefully collected and used for down production.

Removal of heads and legs
      The heads of the birds go into a channel where they are pulled off mechanically; the legs of the birds are removed with a rotary knife (much like a meat slicer) either at the hock or slightly below it, depending on national custom. The carcasses drop off the shackle and are rehung by their hock onto the eviscerating shackle line. By law in the United States, the scalding and defeathering steps must be separated by a wall from the evisceration steps in order to minimize cross-contamination.

Evisceration and inspection
      At this point the preen, or oil, gland is removed from the tail and the vent is opened so that the viscera (internal organs) can be removed. Evisceration can be done either by hand (with knives) or by using complex, fully automated mechanical devices. Automated evisceration lines can operate at a rate of about 70 birds per minute. The equipment is cleaned (with relatively high levels of chlorine) after each bird.

      The carcasses are generally inspected during the evisceration process. The inspection procedures in the poultry industry vary around the world and may be performed by government inspectors, veterinarians, or plant personnel, depending on a country's laws. For example, in the United States the viscera are removed and placed on the side of the bird. Inspectors from the U.S. Department of Agriculture then examine the entire bird. The plant provides each inspector with an assistant who carries out any adjustments required by the inspector (e.g., removing the entire bird or removing some part of the bird). The rejected parts are placed in a container marked “inedibles,” and the contents are generally dyed (often a blue-purple), under supervision of the inspector, in order to prevent possible mixing with edible parts.

      Following inspection, the carcasses are further cleaned. The viscera are separated from the carcasses, and the edible offal are removed from the inedible offal. The heart, stomach, and liver are all considered edible offal and are independently processed. Stomachs are generally cut open and the inside yellow lining of the stomach along with the stomach contents are removed.

      The lungs and kidneys are removed separately from the other visceral organs using a vacuum pipe. A final inspection is often carried out at this point, and the carcasses are then washed thoroughly.

Chilling
      After the carcasses have been washed, they are chilled to a temperature below 4° C (40° F). The two main methods for chilling poultry are water chilling and air chilling.

Water chilling
      Water chilling is used throughout North America and involves a prechilling step in which a countercurrent flow of cold water is used to lower the temperature of the carcasses. The carcasses are then moved into a chiller—a large tank specifically designed to move the carcasses through in a specific amount of time. Two tanks are used to minimize cross-contamination.

      A specified overflow of water for each tank is required by law in the United States and Canada. Although this renders the chilling process very water-intensive, it helps to minimize bacterial cross-contamination by diluting the microorganisms washed off the carcasses, thereby preventing recontamination.

      Water chilling leads to an increase in poultry weight, and the amount of water gained is carefully regulated. In the United States the legal limits for water pickup are 8 percent for birds going directly to market and 12 percent for birds that will be further processed (the assumption is that they will lose the extra 4 percent by the time they reach the consumer).

Air chilling
      Air chilling is the standard in Europe. The carcasses are hung by shackles and moved through coolers with rapidly moving air. The process is less energy-efficient than water chilling, and the birds lose weight because of dehydration. Air chilling prevents cross-contamination between birds. However, if a single bird contains a high number of pathogens, this pathogen count will remain on the bird. Thus, water chilling may actually result in a lower overall bacterial load, because many of the pathogens are discarded in the water.

      The final temperature of the carcasses before shipment is usually about -2° to -1° C (28° to 30° F), just above the freezing point for poultry. In some cases a slight crusting on the surface occurs during the final chilling. For water-chilled carcasses this final chilling takes place after packaging, when the carcasses are placed in an air chiller.

Processing of poultry

Raw poultry products
      Whole or individual parts of birds may be packaged raw for direct sale. Poultry packaged in the United States must include instructions about safe handling, including the need to wash all equipment that has come in contact with raw poultry and the need to wash one's hands before preparing other foods. Most raw turkey is sold frozen, while most chicken is sold fresh.

Fresh poultry
      The birds are generally cut into a number of pieces, which are placed on plastic foam trays and covered with a plastic film (see ). A “diaper” (absorbent paper with a plastic backing) is often used to catch any liquid that may be released from the meat. Fresh poultry should be used within 14 to 21 days after slaughter and generally should not be kept in the home refrigerator for more than three days. In the United States, poultry that has been frozen to a temperature of -5° to -4° C (22° to 24° F) and then allowed to thaw can legally be sold as “fresh.”

Frozen poultry
      Most frozen poultry is vacuum-packed in plastic bags and then frozen in high-velocity freezers. The birds are kept in cold storage until needed. Before freezing, poultry may be injected with various salts, flavourings, and oils in order to increase the juiciness of the meat. Injections are usually done with a multi-needle automatic injector, and information about the added ingredients is indicated on the package label.

      Frozen storage time (including poultry bought fresh and frozen in a home freezer) depends on the temperature of the freezer, the quality of the packaging, and the cycling of the freezer. For best results poultry should be used within three months. Frozen poultry products can be used directly in the frozen state or thawed first. Thawing should be done in the refrigerator or under running cold water to minimize the potential for microbial contamination.

Processed poultry products
      Poultry may be further processed into other products. The number of processed poultry products has increased dramatically since the 1970s because of the low cost of poultry and its versatile, bland flavour.

Battering (batter) and breading
      Some poultry products are battered (e.g., with beer batter) or battered and breaded (e.g., with cracker meal, bread crumbs, or cornmeal) for frying. The meat may be either cooked or raw prior to coating. For battered and breaded poultry, the pieces are passed through a flour-based batter containing leavening and then through the breading ingredients. Many types of baked breadings have been developed to meet different tastes (e.g., Cajun or Japanese). To hold the breading to the poultry, the product is deep-fried for a short time. If the poultry is fully cooked in this process, the consumer will only have to heat the product before eating it. Chicken nuggets are a battered and breaded product that is marinated before coating.

Tumbling and massaging
      In the manufacturing of many poultry products, the meat is mixed with a variety of nonmeat ingredients, including flavourings, spices, and salt. Tumbling and massaging are gentle methods that produce a uniform meat mixture. A tumbler is a slowly rotating drum that works the meat into a smooth mixture. A massager is a large mixing chamber that contains a number of internal paddles. Cured turkey products (i.e., treated with sodium nitrite), such as turkey ham and turkey pastrami, are often tumbled or massaged during processing.

      Poultry may be smoked. Prior to smoking, the birds must be brined (soaked in a salt solution containing certain flavourings) and then allowed to dry. Smoking can be done using real wood shavings or a smoke flavouring. In the last case this must be labeled in the United States as “natural smoke flavor added.”

Deboning and grinding
      Further processed poultry products leave the backs, necks, and bones available for their own processing. These materials are run through a machine called a mechanical deboner or a meat-bone separator. In general, the crushed meat and bones are continuously pressed against a screen and the edible, soft materials pushed through the screen. The resulting minced product is similar in texture to ground beef and has been used for many poultry products such as frankfurters (frankfurter) (hot dogs) and bologna. Poultry frankfurters and bologna are made using a process similar to that for beef and pork. The meat is combined with water or ice, salt, and seasonings and chopped to emulsify the materials. The mixture is stuffed into plastic casings and cooked in a smokehouse. The meat is then quickly chilled, peeled, and vacuum-packaged. Bologna is stuffed into a larger casing and is not necessarily peeled.

Joe M. Regenstein

Additional Reading
R. MacRae, R.K. Robinson, and M.J. Sadler (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology, and Nutrition, 8 vol. (1993); and Y.H. Hui (ed.), Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology, 4 vol. (1992), are general works that cover all aspects of the science of food. P. Fellows, Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practices (1988), is an introductory text.R. Paul Singh Robert E. Moreng and John S. Avens, Poultry Science and Production (1985, reissued 1991), is a well-illustrated overview of all aspects of the poultry industry and avian biology. William J. Stadelman et al., Egg and Poultry-Meat Processing (1988), deals with nutritional aspects and contains a full listing of USDA-approved poultry products.Joe M. Regenstein

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Universalium. 2010.

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