Timur

Timur
Timur [tē moor′]

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born 1336, Kesh, near Samarkand, Transoxania
died Feb. 19, 1405, Otrar, near Chimkent

Turkic conqueror of Islamic faith whose conquests reached from India and Russia to the Mediterranean Sea.

Timur took part in campaigns in Transoxania with Chagatai, a descendant of Genghis Khan. (Timur Lenk, or Tamerlane, means "Timur the Lame," reflecting the battle wounds he received.) Through machinations and treachery he took over Transoxania and proclaimed himself the restorer of the Mongol empire. In the 1380s he began his conquest of Iran (Persia), taking Khorāsān and eastern Iran in 1383–85 and western Iran as far as Mesopotamia and Georgia in 1386–94. He occupied Moscow for a year. When revolts broke out in Iran, he ruthlessly suppressed them, massacring the populations of whole cities. In 1398 he invaded India, leaving a trail of carnage. Next he marched on Damascus and Baghdad, deporting the artisans of the former to Samarkand and destroying all the monuments of the latter. In 1404 he prepared to march on China but died early in the march. Although Timur strove to make Samarkand the most splendid city in Asia, he himself preferred to be always on the move. His most lasting memorials are the architectural monuments of Samarkand and the dynasty he established, under which Samarkand became a centre of scholarship and science.

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▪ Turkic conqueror
Introduction
also spelled  Timour , byname  Timur Lenk  or  Timurlenk (Turkish: “Timur the Lame”) , English  Tamerlane  or  Tamburlaine 
born 1336, Kesh, near Samarkand, Transoxania [now in Uzbekistan]
died Feb. 19, 1405, Otrar, near Chimkent [now Shymkent, Kazakhstan]

      Turkic conqueror, chiefly remembered for the barbarity of his conquests from India and Russia to the Mediterranean Sea and for the cultural achievements of his dynasty.

Life
      Timur was a member of the Turkicized Barlas tribe, a Mongol subgroup that had settled in Transoxania (now roughly corresponding to Uzbekistan) after taking part in Genghis Khan's son Chagatai's campaigns in that region. Timur thus grew up in what was known as the Chagatai khanate. After the death in 1357 of Transoxania's current ruler, Amir Kazgan, Timur declared his fealty to the khan of nearby Kashgar, Tughluq Temür, who had overrun Transoxania's chief city, Samarkand, in 1361. Tughluq Temür appointed his son Ilyas Khoja as governor of Transoxania, with Timur as his minister. But shortly afterward Timur fled and rejoined his brother-in-law Amir Husayn, the grandson of Amir Kazgan. They defeated Ilyas Khoja (1364) and set out to conquer Transoxania, achieving firm possession of the region around 1366. About 1370 Timur turned against Husayn, besieged him in Balkh, and, after Husayn's assassination, proclaimed himself at Samarkand sovereign of the Chagatai line of khans and restorer of the Mongol empire.

      For the next 10 years Timur fought against the khans of Jatah (eastern Turkistan) and Khorezm, finally occupying Kashgar in 1380. He gave armed support to Tokhtamysh, who was the Mongol khan of the Crimea and a refugee at his court, against the Russians (who had risen against the khan of the Golden Horde, Mamai); and his troops occupied Moscow and defeated the Lithuanians near Poltava.

      In 1383 Timur began his conquests in Persia with the capture of Herāt. The Persian political and economic situation was extremely precarious. The signs of recovery visible under the later Mongol rulers known as the Il-Khanid dynasty had been followed by a setback after the death of the last Il-Khanid, Abu Said (1335). The vacuum of power was filled by rival dynasties, torn by internal dissensions and unable to put up joint or effective resistance. Khorāsān and all eastern Persia fell to him in 1383–85; Fars, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Georgia all fell between 1386 and 1394. In the intervals, he was engaged with Tokhtamysh, then khan of the Golden Horde, whose forces invaded Azerbaijan in 1385 and Transoxania in 1388, defeating Timur's generals. In 1391 Timur pursued Tokhtamysh into the Russian steppes and defeated and dethroned him; but Tokhtamysh raised a new army and invaded the Caucasus in 1395. After his final defeat on the Kur River, Tokhtamysh gave up the struggle; Timur occupied Moscow for a year. The revolts that broke out all over Persia while Timur was away on these campaigns were repressed with ruthless vigour; whole cities were destroyed, their populations massacred, and towers built of their skulls.

      In 1398 Timur invaded India on the pretext that the Muslim sultans of Delhi were showing excessive tolerance to their Hindu subjects. He crossed the Indus River on September 24 and, leaving a trail of carnage, marched on Delhi. The army of the Delhi sultan Mahmud Tughluq was destroyed at Panipat on December 17, and Delhi was reduced to a mass of ruins, from which it took more than a century to emerge. By April 1399 Timur was back in his own capital. An immense quantity of spoil was conveyed away; according to Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, 90 captured elephants were employed to carry stones from quarries to erect a mosque at Samarkand.

      Timur set out before the end of 1399 on his last great expedition, in order to punish the Mamlūk sultan of Egypt and the Ottoman sultan Bayazid I for their seizures of certain of his territories. After restoring his control over Azerbaijan, he marched on Syria; Aleppo was stormed and sacked, the Mamlūk army defeated, and Damascus occupied (1401), the deportation of its artisans to Samarkand being a fatal blow to its prosperity. In 1401 Baghdad was also taken by storm, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred, and all its monuments were destroyed. After wintering in Georgia, Timur invaded Anatolia, destroyed Bayazid's army near Ankara (July 20, 1402), and captured Smyrna from the Knights of Rhodes. Having received offers of submission from the sultan of Egypt and from John VII (then coemperor of the Byzantine Empire with Manuel II Palaeologus), Timur returned to Samarkand (1404) and prepared for an expedition to China. He set out at the end of December, fell ill at Otrar on the Syr Darya west of Chimkent, and died in February 1405. His body was embalmed, laid in an ebony coffin, and sent to Samarkand, where it was buried in the sumptuous tomb called Gūr-e Amīr. Before his death he had divided his territories among his two surviving sons and his grandsons, and, after years of internecine struggles, the lands were reunited by his youngest son, Shāh Rokh.

Assessment
      Timur began his rise as leader of a small nomad band and by guile and force of arms established dominion over the lands between the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers (Transoxania) by the 1360s. He then, for three decades, led his mounted archers to subdue each state from Mongolia to the Mediterranean. He was the last of the mighty conquerors of Central Asia to achieve such military successes as leader of the nomad warrior lords, ruling both agricultural and pastoral peoples on an imperial scale. The poverty, bloodshed, and desolation caused by his campaigns gave rise to many legends, which in turn inspired such works as Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlaine the Great.

      The name Timur Lenk signified Timur the Lame, a title of contempt used by his Persian enemies, which became Tamburlaine, or Tamerlane, in Europe. Timur was heir to a political, economic, and cultural heritage rooted in the pastoral peoples and nomad traditions of Central Asia. He and his compatriots cultivated the military arts and discipline of Genghis Khan and, as mounted archers and swordsmen, scorned the settled peasants. Timur never took up a permanent abode. He personally led his almost constantly campaigning forces, enduring extremes of desert heat and lacerating cold. When not campaigning he moved with his army according to season and grazing facilities. His court traveled with him, including his household of one or more of his nine wives and concubines. He strove to make his capital, Samarkand, the most splendid city in Asia, but when he visited it he stayed only a few days and then moved back to the pavilions of his encampment in the plains beyond the city.

      Timur was, above all, master of the military techniques developed by Genghis Khan, using every weapon in the military and diplomatic armory of the day. He never missed an opportunity to exploit the weakness (political, economic, or military) of the adversary or to use intrigue, treachery, and alliance to serve his purposes. The seeds of victory were sown among the ranks of the enemy by his agents before an engagement. He conducted sophisticated negotiations with both neighbouring and distant powers, which are recorded in diplomatic archives from England to China. In battle, the nomadic tactics of mobility and surprise were his major weapons of attack.

      Timur's most lasting memorials are the Timurid architectural monuments of Samarkand, covered in azure, turquoise, gold, and alabaster mosaics; these are dominated by the great cathedral mosque, ruined by an earthquake but still soaring to an immense fragment of dome. His mausoleum, the Gūr-e Amīr, is one of the gems of Islamic art. Within the sepulchre he lies under a huge, broken slab of jade. The tomb was opened in 1941, having remained intact for half a millennium. The Soviet Archaeological Commission found the skeleton of a man who, though lame in both right limbs, must have been of powerful physique and tall for a Tatar.

      Timur's sons and grandsons fought over the succession when the Chinese expedition disbanded, but his dynasty (see Timurid Dynasty) survived in Central Asia for a century in spite of fratricidal strife. Samarkand became a centre of scholarship and science. It was here that Ulūgh Beg, his grandson, set up an observatory and drew up the astronomical tables that were later used by the English royal astronomer in the 17th century. During the Timurid renaissance of the 15th century, Herāt, southeast of Samarkand, became the home of the brilliant school of Persian miniaturists. At the beginning of the 16th century, when the dynasty ended in Central Asia, his descendant Bābur established himself in Kābul and then conquered Delhi, to found the Muslim line of Indian emperors known as the Great Mughals. (Mughal Dynasty)

Additional Reading
A scholarly study of the evidence relating to Timur's life is in V.V. Bartold, Four Studies on the History of Central Asia, 2 vol. (1956–58). Based substantially on this work is the account of his life given in Hilda Hookham, Tamburlaine, the Conqueror (1962), which also contains the fullest available bibliography of works in English.

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Universalium. 2010.

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  • Timur — Denkmal in Taschkent Tīmūr bin Taraghay Barlas (Mitteltürkisch: ‏تیمور‎ Temür‎, „das Eisen“), in der abendländischen Geschichtsschreibung besser bekannt als Tamerlan bzw. Timur Lenk (ugs. Timur der Lahme [1], * 8. April 1336 in Kesh, heute… …   Deutsch Wikipedia

  • Timur — Timur, Timur leng Timur lengprop. n. See {Tamerlane}. Syn: Tamerlane, Timour. [PJC] …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • Timur —   [osttürkisch temür »Eisen«], bei den Persern Timur i Lạ̈ng [»Timur der Lahme«], daraus entstellt Tamerlan, asiatische Eroberer aus Transoxanien, * bei Käsch (heute Schahr i säbs, bei Samarkand) 8. 4. 1336 (traditionell überliefertes, wohl nur… …   Universal-Lexikon

  • Timur — (»Eisen«), auch Timur Lenk, der »lahme T.« (infolge einer Verwundung), oder verstümmelt Tamerlan genannt, geb. 1333 in Kesch bei Samarkand, gest. 17. Febr. 1405, focht 1355 gegen Husein Kert von Chorasan, wurde um 1360 von den Dschagataïden als… …   Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon

  • Timur — (d.i. Eisen), auch Timur Beg oder Timur Leng (lahmer T.), gewöhnlich Tamerlan genannt, asiat. Eroberer, geb. 9. April 1336 zu Sebz in der Prov. Ketsch, bemächtigte sich 1370 Tschagatais, eroberte ganz Zentralasien, Persien und Indien, nahm den… …   Kleines Konversations-Lexikon

  • Timur [1] — Timur, Volksstamm, zu den Eimack (s.d.) gehörig …   Pierer's Universal-Lexikon

  • Timur [2] — Timur, 1) (T. Beg od. T. Leng, d.h. der Hinkende, gewöhnlich Tamerlan genannt), geb. um 1336 zu Kesch, nach Einigen Sohn eines Emirs, nach Andern eines Hirten, er selbst leitete seine Abstammung von Dschingis Khan ab. Als glücklicher Krieger kam… …   Pierer's Universal-Lexikon

  • Timur — (Timurbeg, Timurleng, Tamerlan), geb. 1336 zu Kesch, einer der herabgekommenen Sprößlinge Dschingischans, ein fanatischer Moslem und mordsüchtiger Mongole; bemächtigte sich durch glückliche Kriege der Herrschaft in Turkestan (1370), eroberte… …   Herders Conversations-Lexikon

  • TIMUR — cognomine Lenck, i. e. claudus, vulgo Tamerlanes, eirca A. C. 1370. Tartarorum res mutuis dissidiis pene collapsas, velut alter Schinguis Khan, ad summam iterum et longe maiorem, quam unquam, meiestatem perduxit: omnium terrarum a China usque ad… …   Hofmann J. Lexicon universale

  • Timur — [tē moor′] var. of TAMERLANE …   English World dictionary

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