Bulgarian literature

      body of writings in the Bulgarian language. Its origin is closely linked to Christianization of the Slavs beginning with Khan (Tsar) Boris I's (Boris I) adoption in 864 of the Eastern Orthodox rather than Latin faith for his court and people. This political decision, combined with geographical proximity to Byzantium, determined a key role for Bulgarian in the Balkan development of a first Slavic written language and its corpus of ecclesiastical writings known as Old Bulgarian literature.

      Following this religious conversion, the pupils of Cyril and Methodius were soon to establish the first Slavic literary school (893–971), under patronage of the royal court of Preslav (now Veliki Preslav), capital of Tsar Simeon (Simeon I) (died 927) and Tsar Peter (died 969), and also, arising from their mission to Devol and Ohrid, an illustrious, first Slavic “university,” founded by St. Clement, patron of Bulgaria's modern Sofiiski Universitet “Kliment Ohridsky.” Among monastic centres at Preslav and Ohrid were St. Panteleimon foundations. In this Golden, or Old Bulgarian, period, medieval Bulgarian culture aspired to rival even the “Imperial City” (called Tsarigrad by the Slavs), Constantinople itself, as suggested by John the Exarch in his Shestodnev (“Hexameron”; i.e., “Six Days [of Creation]”). Tsar Simeon's own name is closely linked with work on his Simeonov sbornik (“Simeon's Collection [of Gospel Commentaries]”) and with the Zlatostruy (“Golden Stream”), the first Slavic version from the Greek of St. John Chrysostom. The predominant role played in this early Slavic literature by translating from (and so Slavicizing) the Greek reflects the determination of these Bulgarian writers to promote the Slav dialect and to convey, in structure and lexicon, all the complexities and sophistication of Byzantine thought.

      The 13th–14th-century Middle Bulgarian, or Silver, age of the Asen and Shishman dynasties excelled in sheer graphic virtuosity (script, layout, illumination, binding) of its manuscripts, such as the Vatican Manasses Chronicle of 1345 and the London Tsar Ivan Aleksandŭr Gospel of 1356. In content, too, Byzantine influences and translations from the Greek continued to yield, as in the Old Bulgarian period, abundant literary resources. The Asenid taste for historical and temporal themes was succeeded in the late 14th century by the mystical doctrines of Hesychasm, with its quest for “inner light.” This was the doctrine of Theodosius of Turnovo (noted for his Kilifarevo monastery school) and his most celebrated pupil, Patriarch Evtimy (died c. 1404). Both were leading figures in the Turnovo literary school, famous for its endeavours to standardize and purify the Old Church Slavonic (OCS) tradition as closely as this could still feasibly be related to its pristine 9th–10th-century forms. The withdrawal, if not the close, of Bulgarian medieval literature features a curious genre of contemporary travelogue—the conveyance of saints' relics from Turnovo to Tsar Ivan Stratsimir's Bdin (Vidin) or farther west. Such Bulgarian scholars as Grigory Tsamblak and Konstantin of Kostenets (“the Philosopher”) also migrated westward, taking with them their literary skills and tradition. With these last scions of the early and late medieval Bulgarian literatures often went, too, the actual manuscript heritage of Old Church Slavonic.

      Important as this sophisticated ecclesiastical literary tradition proved to be in its Bulgarian (and wider Balkan and Slav) contexts, it never displaced the other, less refined, and certainly quite uncanonical medieval literary streams that flowed more broadly over biblical, historical, and even heathen grounds to fill Balkan legends with classical, Christian, and apocryphal themes. Such “fiction,” with its moral didactic intentions, includes an early 10th-century Bulgarian short story (probably the earliest Slavic example in this prolific genre) of Simeon's credulous cavalryman's “miraculous encounter” with the Magyars (“Chudo s bulgarina”) and the tales of “Mikhail the Warrior,” “Teofana the Innkeeper,” “Stefanit and Ihnilat,” and, based probably on Boris I's daughter Praksi, “Bulgarian Queen Persika.” Here also belong, very definitely outside the ecclesiastical and royal pale, the body of writings, doctrinal and apocryphal, of the Bulgarian Bogomil heresy, provoking from official quarters those lively and informative reactions of Presbyter Kozma and of Tsar Boril's synodal convocation of 1211. Finally, on ground common to both the Old Bulgarian ecclesiastical and the more popular literatures, are the accounts of St. John of Rila, the traditional patron saint of Bulgaria and founder of its first monastery. Notable here, alongside the popular versions, are Patriarch Evtimy's “Life of Our Most Blessed Father Yoan of Rila” and Vladislav Gramatik's “Rila Story: Conveyance of St. Yoan's Relics to the [Re-founded] Rila Monastery.”

      Modern Bulgarian literature dates from the mid-19th-century awakening of national consciousness. Consonant with this was the formation of novobulgarski, the new (or modern) literary Bulgarian language based on the vernacular of its eastern dialects, as opposed to the medieval Church Slavonic, which until then had always been used for literary purposes. Pioneers in this were Bishop Sophrony, whose Nedelnik (1806; “Sunday-Book”) is the first modern Bulgarian printed book; Neophyt Rilski, grammarian and founder of the first modern Bulgarian school in 1835; N. Gerov, compiler of the first major dictionary of Bulgarian; the Russian antiquary Y. Venelin; V. Aprilov; and I. Bogorov. Harbinger of this whole awakening of Bulgarian national consciousness (known as the Vuzrazhdane) was Father Paisy of Chilandari, whose single work, Istoria slavyanobulgarska (1762; “Slavo-Bulgarian History”), by its romantic evocation of Bulgaria's past and appeal to national self-respect inspired Bulgaria's renascence, including its first able modern writers. These, who often combined capacities of poet, scholar, publicist, and revolutionary, shaped through works of unequal literary merit an effective image of the resurgent nation. Conditions of the time—lack of freedom, the strength of Greek cultural domination, and strong Russian utilitarian influences—taught these writers, many of whom were educated in Odessa or Moscow, that literature should serve social and national needs. Thus inspired, D. Voynikov, I. Bluskov, and especially L. Karavelov and V. Drumev founded modern Bulgarian Realism with their narrative prose and drama taken from rural and small-town life; H. Botev (Botev, Khristo), in his single-minded devotion to ideals of liberty and fatherland, wrote impassioned revolutionary poetry; Petko Slaveykov (Slaveykov, Petko Rachev), an irrepressible journalist, Bible translator, and agitator for the Bulgarian independent exarchate, worked all his life in Bulgarian and Macedonian lands and in Stambul itself (never in emigration like Karavelov and Botev), drawing for his verse on folklore and Greek popular songs; and G. Rakovski (Rakovski, Georgi Sava), a typical vuzrozhdenets (“Renaissance figure”) in his versatility and vitality, exploited often with more zeal than discretion the two main indigenous resources for Bulgarian writers then and since, an illustrious medieval past and a richly surviving folklore.

      The liberation of Bulgaria in 1878 created a climate far more favourable to literary development than that of the preceding five centuries of Turkish rule. Ivan Vazov (Vazov, Ivan) almost alone links as a writer the epochs before and after liberation. His immense output from the early 1870s to 1921, reflecting in all main genres every facet of his people's life, past and present, has earned him the title of “national poet.” An epic cycle, Epopeya na zabravenite (1881–84; “Epic of the Forgotten”), evoked with visionary power his pantheon of heroes from the struggle for independence; a novella, Chichovtsi (1895; “Uncles”), was a realistic portrait gallery of Bulgarian provincial “notables” in Turkish times. Vazov's narrative gifts were at their highest in Bulgaria's “national novel” Pod igoto (1893; translated as Under the Yoke, 1894), which vividly described the Bulgarian struggle against the Turks; his short stories entertained and his travelogues of rural and historical Bulgaria informed his readers; his most popular play, Hushové (1894), depicting these pre-liberation expatriates' ordeals in Romania, together with his dramas of medieval Bulgaria, dominated the repertoire of the Sofia National Theatre (founded 1907).

      Without equalling Vazov's powers of imagination and synthesis, Konstantin Velichkov shared his ideals. His poetic temperament was best expressed in sonnets inspired by travels to Constantinople and Italy. An exponent of Italianate influence, he contributed to the then fashionable literature of memoirs. Most notable here was Z. Stoyanov, whose Zapiski po bulgarskite vuzstaniya (1883–85; translated as Notes on the Bulgarian Uprisings) recorded eyewitness experiences of then recent history with a directness rarely equalled since in Bulgarian prose.

      Writers of the new independent state, when not preoccupied with celebrating the recent or distant past, eyed critically contemporary society's more negative aspects. In satire, fable, and epigram, S. Mihaylovski with unrelenting bitterness castigated corruption in public life. His most ambitious satire, Kniga za bulgarskia narod (1897; “Book on the Bulgarian People”), took the form of a moral-philosophical allegory. In a lighter vein, Aleko Konstantinov created in Bay Ganyu (1895; subtitled “Incredible Tales of a Contemporary Bulgarian [on his European Travels and at Home]”) a tragi-comic prototype of the Bulgarian peasant turned parvenu and demagogue. In his travelogue Do Chicago i nazad (1894; “To Chicago and Back”), he measured Bulgaria against cultures of Europe and the United States, not always to the latter's advantage.

      By the 1890s the school of older writers began to be challenged by a younger group intent on freeing art from parochialism and socio-political militancy. Leading this was the review Misǔl (“Thought,” 1892–1908), founded by Krǔstyo Krǔstev, the first Bulgarian critic to stress the importance of the aesthetic conscience. A member of the Misǔl group, Pencho Slaveykov (Slaveykov, Pencho Petkov), broadened the Romantic tradition of Bulgarian poetry and helped to create a complex poetic language. Influenced by Nietzsche, he glorified the heroism of spiritual achievement and wrote his Epicheski pesni (1896–98; “Epic Songs”) on the giants of the human spirit he revered—Dante, Beethoven, Shelley, and Leopardi. His ideas were expressed in his essays and in his autobiographical anthology of “apocryphal” verse by fictitious poets, Na ostrova na blazhenite (1910; “On the Isle of the Blessed”). His narrative poems Boyko (1897) and Ralitsa (1893) interpreted folk themes psychologically, and his greatest, though unfinished, work, Kǔrvava pesen (1913; “Song of Blood”), was an epic on Bulgaria's history and destiny. Even more than Slaveykov, Petko Todorov, originator of the Bulgarian Romantic short story, believed that literature was sufficient unto itself; both in his Idilii (1908), prose poems inspired by folklore, and in several dramas based on Balkan mythology, notably Zidari (1906; “Masons”), is displayed his delicate poetic talent.

      With the beginning of the 20th century, avant-garde literary currents encouraged a “modernist” phase related to the Symbolist movement in Western poetry. An anacreontic permissiveness and lyrical power distinguished the poetry of Kiril Khristov, as in Himni na zorata (1911; “Hymns to the Dawn”). P. Yavorov (Yavorov, Peyo), a member of the Misǔl group, did most at this time to develop the musical and evocative potentialities of Bulgarian in poetry. His work closely reflected his restless spiritual development, and although his plays showed great promise, his real achievement lay in lyric poetry. Echoes of Yavorov are found in the melodious, sensuous stanzas of Dimcho Debelyanov, whose death in World War I made him a symbol of tragic frustration for intellectuals. Symbolism inspired the postwar poetry of Nikolay Liliev and Teodor Trayanov.

      Meanwhile, the Realist tradition continued in the work of such writers as Anton Strashimirov and G. Stamatov, whose cynical stories denigrated Sofia's society. Strashimirov was an acute observer of the contemporary social scene; one of his best stories of peasant life was “Kochalovskata kramola” (1895; “The Kochalovo Quarrel”), and he also wrote the novels Esenni dni (1902; “Autumn Days”), Krǔstopǔt (1904; “Crossroad”), and Sreshta (1908; “Meeting”) and the dramas Vampir (1902) and Svekǔrva (1906; “Mother-in-Law”). His contemporary Elin Pelin portrayed his native rural province with wit and humanity in Razkazi (1904 and 1911; “Stories”) and in the tragic novellas Geratsite (1911; “The Gerak Family”) and Zemya (1928; “Land”). Yordan Yovkov (Yovkov, Yordan), novelist and playwright, excelled at describing the effects of war, the subject of his early masterpiece, Zemlyatsi (1915); his short stories “Staroplaninski legendi” (1927) and “Vecheri v Antimovskiya khan” (1928; “Evenings in the Antimovo Inn”) display deep insight into the Bulgarian mind and a classical mastery of narrative prose.

      In the aftermath of World War I the literary left was represented by a number of poets who died tragically young: Geo Milev, a convert to revolutionary Marxism; Khristo Smirnenski; and later, the young, gifted Nikola Vaptsarov, who died a martyr in the anti-Nazi resistance, but not before he had hailed the dawn of Socialism and the machine age in his poems Motorni pesni (1940; “Motor Songs”) and Izbrani stihotvoreniya (1946; “Selected Verses”).

      Preeminent as the prose of Elin Pelin and Yovkov was between the World Wars, the younger generation brought artistic refinement to realistic portrayal of Bulgarian life, and high literary standards were maintained in such authoritative reviews as Zlatorog (1920–44) and the Symbolist Hyperion (1920–31). The mystical-fantastic evocations of medieval Bulgaria by the art historian Nikolay Raynov represented Bulgarian Neoromanticism at its best. A satisfying fusion of traditional and experimental poetry was to be found in the work of Elisaveta Bagryana.

      The Communist regime set up in 1944 encouraged only writing of “Socialist Realism” as defined by Soviet “aesthetic” theory. The resulting uniformity of purpose made it difficult to evaluate the work of many writers, though the novels of D. Dimov and D. Talev received universal acclaim, especially Talev's work on 19th-century Macedonia. Moreover, the emergence of numerous young talented writers augured well for the future.

Liliana Brisby Ed.

Additional Reading

D. Shismanov, A Survey of Bulgarian Literature (1932); Clarence A. Manning and Roman Smal-Stocki, The History of Modern Bulgarian Literature (1960, reprinted 1974).

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