Jehovah's Witness

Jehovah's Witness
Member of an international religious movement founded in Pittsburgh, Pa.

, by Charles T. Russell in 1872. The movement was originally known as the International Bible Students Association, but its name was changed by Russell's successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869–1942). The Witnesses are a millennialist group whose beliefs are based primarily on the apocalyptic sections of the Bible, notably Daniel and the Book of Revelation. They refuse to perform military service or salute the flag, actions which have brought them into direct conflict with governments around the world. They are famous for their door-to-door evangelizing and for refusing blood transfusions; they believe there is scriptural justification for all their actions and beliefs. Their goal is the establishment of God's kingdom on earth, and they hold that Jesus
who is believed to be God's first creation rather than one person in a trinity
is God's agent in this plan. Their national headquarters is in Brooklyn, N.Y.; their major publications, the Watchtower and Awake!, are published in about 80 languages. See also millennialism.

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Introduction

      member of a millennialist sect that developed within the larger 19th-century Adventist movement in the United States and has since spread worldwide. The Jehovah's Witnesses are an outgrowth of the International Bible Students Association, which was founded in 1872 in Pittsburgh by Charles Taze Russell (Russell, Charles Taze).

History
      The Adventist movement emerged in the 1830s around the predictions of William Miller (Miller, William), who proclaimed that Jesus Christ would return in 1843 or 1844. When Christ did not return as Miller prophecied, Adventists divided into a number of factions. During the 1870s, Charles Taze Russell established himself as an independent and controversial Adventist teacher. He rejected belief in hell as a place of eternal torment and adopted a nontrinitarian theology that denied the divinity of Jesus. He also interpreted the Second Coming in accordance with the literal translation of the original Greek term, parousia (“presence”), suggesting that Christ would come as an invisible presence and that the parousia, or “Millennial Dawn,” already had occurred, in 1874. The coming of Christ's invisible presence signaled the end of the current order of society and would be followed by his visible presence and the establishment of the millennial kingdom on Earth in 1914. Although the kingdom did not come, Russell's teachings motivated a number of volunteers to circulate his many books and pamphlets and a periodical, The Watchtower, and to recalculate the time of the parousia.

      In addition to the International Bible Students Association, Russell formed the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (1884), with himself as president. In 1909 he transferred the headquarters of the movement to its current location in Brooklyn.

      Russell was succeeded as president in 1917 by Joseph Franklin Rutherford (Judge Rutherford; 1869–1942), who changed the group's name to Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931 to emphasize its members' belief that Jehovah, or Yahweh, is the true God and that the Witnesses were his specially chosen followers. Rutherford molded the Witnesses into a cadre of dedicated evangelists, even equipping members with portable phonographs to play his “sermonettes” on street corners and in the living rooms of prospective converts. Under Rutherford's leadership, Russell's group became a tightly knit organization.

      Rutherford's successor, Nathan Homer Knorr (1905–77), assumed the presidency in 1942 and continued and expanded Rutherford's policies. He established the Watch Tower Bible School of Gilead (South Lansing, N.Y.) to train missionaries and leaders, decreed that all the society's books and articles were to be published anonymously, and set up adult lay-education programs to train Witnesses to teach prospective converts. Under Knorr's direction, a group of Witnesses produced a new translation of the Bible. Knorr was followed as president of the Jehovah's Witnesses by Frederick W. Franz (1893–1992) in 1978 and then by Milton G. Henschel in 1992 (1920–2003). In 2000 Henschel stepped down in a reorganization of the leadership and was replaced by Don A. Adams.

Beliefs
      Witnesses hold a number of traditional Christian views but also many that are unique to them. They affirm that God—Jehovah—is the most high. Jesus Christ is God's agent, through whom sinful humans can be reconciled to God. The Holy Spirit is the name of God's active force in the world. Witnesses believe that they are living in the last days, and they look forward to the imminent establishment of God's kingdom on Earth, which will be headed by Christ and jointly administered by 144,000 human corulers (Revelation 7:4). Those who acknowledge Jehovah in this life will become members of the millennial kingdom; those who reject him will not go to hell but will face total extinction. New members are baptized by immersion and are expected to live by a strict code of personal conduct. Marriage is considered a holy covenant, and divorce is disapproved of except in cases of adultery. Witnesses participate in the annual commemoration of Christ's death, celebrated on 14 Nisan of the Jewish calendar (March or April of the Gregorian calendar); Witnesses pass around bread and wine, symbols of the body and blood of Christ. Only those thought to be among the 144,000 corulers eat and drink the bread and wine.

      The Witnesses' teachings also stress strict separation from secular government. Although they are generally law-abiding, believing that governments are established by God to maintain peace and order, they refuse to observe certain laws on biblical grounds. They do not salute the flag of any nation, believing it an act of false worship; they refuse to perform military service; and they do not participate in public elections. These practices have brought them under the scrutiny of government authorities. The U.S. government sent Rutherford and other Watchtower leaders to prison for sedition during World War I. In Germany prior to World War II, the Nazis sent Witnesses to concentration camps, and Witnesses were also persecuted in Britain, Canada, and the United States. After the war the Witnesses brought several suits in American courts dealing with their beliefs and practices, resulting in 59 Supreme Court rulings that were regarded as major judgments on the free exercise of religion. They continue to face persecution in several countries, however, particularly for their refusal to serve in the military, and they are often publicly derided for their door-to-door evangelism.

      The Witnesses' distrust of contemporary institutions extends to other religious denominations, from which they remain separate, and even to modern medicine. They disavow terms such as minister and church. Christian church leaders have denounced the Witnesses for doctrinal deviation (especially their nontrinitarian teachings) and have condemned them as a cult. Witnesses also oppose blood transfusions because of the scriptural admonition against the drinking of blood (Leviticus 3:17). This belief, so contrary to modern medical practice, remains an additional point of controversy with authorities, especially in cases concerning children.

      In the early years of the movement, members met in rented halls, but under Rutherford the Witnesses began to purchase facilities that they designated Kingdom Halls. Members of a local congregation, or “company,” are known as “kingdom publishers” and are expected to spend five hours a week at Kingdom Hall meetings and to spend as much time as possible in doorstep preaching. “Pioneer publishers” hold part-time secular jobs and try to devote 100 hours a month to religious service. “Special pioneers” are full-time, salaried employees of the society who are expected to spend at least 150 hours a month in this work. Each Kingdom Hall has an assigned territory and each Witness a particular neighbourhood to canvass. Great pains are taken to keep records of the number of visits, return calls, Bible classes, and books and magazines distributed.

      The Watch Tower Society publishes millions of books, tracts, recordings, and periodicals, chief among which are a semimonthly magazine, the Watchtower, and its companion publication, Awake!, which are translated into more than 80 languages. Work is carried out in more than 230 countries by approximately six million Witnesses.

John Gordon Melton Ed.

Additional Reading
The vast literature on the Witnesses, both pro and con, is reviewed in Jerry Bergman, Jehovah's Witnesses and Kindred Groups: A Historical Compendium and Bibliography (1984). Among the better studies of Witness life and belief are M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, 2nd ed. (1997), by an academician and former Witness; and Heather Botting and Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses (1984). The history of the movement is covered in Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993), published by the Witnesses.

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Universalium. 2010.

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