sacred

sacred
sacredly, adv.sacredness, n.
/say"krid/, adj.
1. devoted or dedicated to a deity or to some religious purpose; consecrated.
2. entitled to veneration or religious respect by association with divinity or divine things; holy.
3. pertaining to or connected with religion (opposed to secular or profane): sacred music; sacred books.
4. reverently dedicated to some person, purpose, or object: a morning hour sacred to study.
5. regarded with reverence: the sacred memory of a dead hero.
6. secured against violation, infringement, etc., as by reverence or sense of right: sacred oaths; sacred rights.
7. properly immune from violence, interference, etc., as a person or office.
[1275-1325; ME, orig. ptp. of sacren to consecrate < L sacrare to devote, deriv. of sacer holy; see -ED2]
Syn. 2. venerable, divine. See holy. 4. consecrated. 5. revered. 6. sacrosanct. 7. inviolate, inviolable.
Ant. 2. blasphemous.

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Introduction

      the power, being, or realm understood by religious persons to be at the core of existence and to have a transformative effect on their lives and destinies. Other terms, such as holy, divine, transcendent, ultimate being (or reality), mystery, and perfection (or purity) have been used for this domain. “Sacred” is also an important technical term in the scholarly study and interpretation of religions.

      For a discussion of dogmatic interpretations of the Divine as a being or force, see doctrine and dogma.

The emergence of the concept of the sacred
      It was during the first quarter of the 20th century that the concept of the sacred became dominant in the comparative study of religions. Nathan Söderblom (Söderblom, Nathan), an eminent Swedish churchman and historian of religions, asserted in 1913 that the central notion of religion was “holiness” and that the distinction between sacred and profane was basic to all “real” religious life. In 1917 Rudolf Otto's (Otto, Rudolf) Heilige (Eng. trans., The Idea of the Holy, 1923) appeared and exercised a great influence on the study of religion through its description of religious (religious experience) man's experience of the “numinous” (a mysterious, majestic presence inspiring dread and fascination), which Otto, a German theologian and historian of religions, claimed, could not be derived from anything other than an a priori sacred reality. Other scholars who used the notion of sacred as an important interpretive term during this period included the sociologist Émile Durkheim (Durkheim, Émile) in France, and the psychologist-philosopher Max Scheler (Scheler, Max) in Germany. For Durkheim, sacredness referred to those things in society that were forbidden or set apart; and since these sacred things were set apart by society, the sacred force, he concluded, was society itself. In contrast to this understanding of the nature of the sacred, Scheler argued that the sacred (or infinite) was not limited to the experience of a finite object. While Scheler did not agree with Otto's claim that the holy is experienced through a radically different kind of awareness, he did agree with Otto that the awareness of the sacred is not simply the result of conditioning social and psychological forces. Though he criticized Friedrich Schleiermacher (Schleiermacher, Friedrich), an early 19th-century Protestant theologian, for being too subjective in his definition of religion as “the consciousness of being absolutely dependent on God,” Otto was indebted to him in working out the idea of the holy. Söderblom recorded his dependence on the scholarship of the history of religions (Religionswissenschaft), which had been a growing discipline in European universities for about half a century; Durkheim had access to two decades of scholarship on nonliterate peoples, some of which was an account of actual fieldwork. Scheler combined the interests of an empirical scientist with a philosophical effort that followed in the tradition of 19th-century attempts to relate human experiences to the concept of a reality (essence) that underlies human thoughts and activities.

      Since the first quarter of the 20th century many historians of religions have accepted the notion of the sacred and of sacred events, places, people, and acts as being central in religious life if not indeed the essential reality in religious life. For example, phenomenologists of religion such as Gerardus van der Leeuw (Leeuw, Gerardus van der) and W. Brede Kristensen have considered the sacred (holy) as central and have organized the material in their systematic works around the (transcendent) object and (human) subject of sacred (cultic) activity, together with a consideration of the forms and symbols of the sacred. Such historians of religions as Friedrich Heiler and Gustav Mensching organized their material according to the nature of the sacred, its forms and structural types. Significant contributions to the analysis and elaboration of the sacred have been made by Roger Caillois, a sociologist, and by Mircea Eliade (Eliade, Mircea), an eminent historian of religions.

Basic characteristics of the sacred

Sacred–profane and other dichotomies
      The term sacred has been used from a wide variety of perspectives and given varying descriptive and evaluative connotations by scholars seeking to interpret the materials provided by anthropology and the history of religions. In these different interpretations, however, common characteristics were recognized in the sacred, as it is understood by participant individuals and groups: it is separated from the common (profane) world; it expresses the ultimate total value and meaning of life; and it is the eternal reality, which is recognized to have been before it was known and to be known in a way different from that through which common things are known.

      The term sacred comes from Latin sacer (“set off, restricted”). A person or thing was designated as sacred when it was unique or extraordinary. Closely related to sacer is numen (“mysterious power, god”). The term numinous is used at present as a description of the sacred to indicate its power, before which man trembles. Various terms from different traditions have been recognized as correlates of sacer: Greek hagios, Hebrew qadosh, Polynesian tapu, Arabic ḥaram; correlates of numen include the Melanesian mana, the Sioux wakanda, the old German haminja (luck), and Sanskrit Brahman.

      Besides the dichotomy of sacred–profane the sacred includes basic dichotomies of pure–unpure and pollutant–“free.” In ancient Rome the word sacer could mean that which would pollute someone or something that came into contact with it, as well as that which was restricted for divine use. Similarly, the Polynesian tapu (“tabu (taboo)”) designated something as not “free” for common use. It might be someone or something specially blessed because it was full of power, or it might be something accursed, as a corpse. Whatever was tabu had special restrictions around it, for it was full of extraordinary energy that could destroy anyone unprotected with special power himself. In this case the sacred is whatever is uncommon and may include both generating and polluting forces. On the other hand there is the pure–impure dichotomy, in which the sacred is identified with the pure and the profane is identified with the impure. The pure state is that which produces health, vigour, luck, fortune, and long life. The impure state is that characterized by weakness, illness, misfortune, and death. To acquire purity means to enter the sacred realm, which could be done through purification (purification rite) rituals or through the fasting, continence, and meditation of ascetic (asceticism) life. When a person became pure he entered the realm of the divine and left the profane, impure, decaying world. Such a transition was often marked by a ritual act of rebirth.

Ambivalence in man's response to the sacred
      Because the sacred contains notions both of a positive, creative power and a danger that requires stringent prohibitions, the common human reaction is both fear and fascination. Otto elaborated his understanding of the holy from this basic ambiguity. Only the sacred can fulfill man's deepest needs and hopes; thus, the reverence that man shows to the sacred is composed both of trust and terror. On the one hand, the sacred is the limit of human effort both in the sense of that which meets human frailty and that which prohibits human activity; on the other hand, it is the unlimited possibility that draws mankind beyond the limiting temporal–spacial structures that are constituents of human existence.

      Not only is there an ambivalence in the individual's reaction to the numinous quality of the sacred but the restrictions, the tabus, can be expressive of the creative power of the sacred. Caillois has described at length the social mechanism of nonliterate societies, in which the group is divided into two complementary subgroups (moieties), and has interpreted the tabus and the necessary interrelationship of the moieties as expressions of sacredness. Whatever is sacred and restricted for one group is “free” for the other group. In a number of respects—e.g., in supplying certain goods, food, and wives—each group is dependent on the other for elemental needs. Here the sacred is seen to be manifested in the order of the social–physical universe, in which these tribal members live. To disrupt this order, this natural harmony, would be sacrilege, and the culprit would be severely punished. In this understanding of the sacred, a person is, by nature, one of a pair; he is never complete as a single unit. Reality is experienced as one of prescribed relationships, some of these being vertical, hierarchical relationships and others being horizontal, corresponding relationships.

      Another significant ambiguity is that the sacred manifests itself in concrete forms that are also profane. The transcendent mystery is recognized in a specific concrete symbol, act, idea, image, person, or community. The unconditioned reality is manifested in conditioned form. Eliade has elucidated this “dialectic of the sacred,” in which the sacred may be seen in virtually any sort of form in religious history: a stone, an animal, or the sea. The ambiguity of the sacred taking on profane forms also means that even though every system of sacred thought and action differentiates between those things it regards as sacred or as profane, not all people find the sacred manifested in the same form; and what is profane for some is sacred for others.

Manifestations of the sacred
      The sacred appears in myths (myth), sounds, ritual activity, people, and natural objects. Through retelling the myth (creation myth) the divine action that was done “in the beginning” is repeated. The repetition of the sacred action symbolically duplicates the structure and power that established the world originally. Thus, it is important to know and preserve the eternal structure through which man has life, for it is the model and source of power in the present.

      The recognition of sacred power in the myth is related to the notion that sound itself has creative power—in particular special, sacred sounds (mantra). Sometimes these sounds are words, such as the name of god, divine myth, a prayer, or hymn; but sometimes the most sacred sounds are those that do not have a common meaning, for example, the Hindu om, the Buddhist oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ, or the Jewish and Christian “Hallelujah.”

      Closely connected with verbal expressions of sacred power are activities done in worship, in sacraments (sacrament), sacrifices, and festivals. Part of the importance of religious ritual is that in the realm of the sacred all things have their place. In order for human existence to prosper (or even continue) it must correspond as closely as possible to the divine pattern (destiny, or will). Different religious traditions have different theological and philosophical formulations of the meaning of sacraments. In Roman Catholic Christianity, a sacrament is “an outward and visible sign of an inward and invisible grace.” In Brahmanic Hinduism a saṃskāra (sacrament) is a sacred act that perfects a person and that culminates at the end of a series of saṃskāras in a spiritual rebirth, a symbolic “second birth.” In both of these cases, the sacred action establishes the relation between the divine and human worlds.

      Other sacred activity includes initiation, sacrifice, and festival. Initiation rites among nonliterate societies both expose and establish the world view of the participants. The initiate learns the eternal order of life as proclaimed in the myth. Life is viewed essentially as the work of supernatural beings, and the initiate in this ritual is taught this secret of life and how to gain access to divine benefits. The initiate learns the tabus and is often given a sacred mark—e.g., circumcision, tattoo, or incisions—to express physically that he is part of the sacred (original) community. In other religions, such as Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism, an initiate to a special holy (often monastic) community within the larger religious community is designated by a change in name and wearing apparel, denoting his special relation to the sacred.

      In festivals (feast) and sacrifices two religious functions are often combined: (1) to provide new power (energy, life) for the world, and (2) to purify the corrupted, defiled existence. Religious festivals are a return to sacred time, that time prior to the structured existence that most people commonly experience (profane time). Sacred calendars provide the opportunity for the profane time to be rejuvenated periodically in the festivals. These occasions symbolically repeat the primordial chaos before the beginning of the world; and just as the world was created “in the beginning,” so in the repetition of that time the present world is regenerated. The use of masks and the suspension of normal tabus express the unstructured, unconditioned nature of the sacred. Dancing, running, singing, and processions are all techniques for re-creation, for stimulating the original power of life. ritual activity moves power in two directions: (1) it concentrates it in one place, time, and occasion, and (2) it releases power into the everyday stream of events through its self-abundance—the primal vibration reverberates throughout existence. The new energy dispels the old, depleted, polluted energy; it cleanses the constricted, clogged, hardened channels of life.

      One of the most important forms in which man has access to the sacred is in the sacrifice. The central procedure in all sacrifices is the use of a victim or substitute to serve as a mediator between the sacred and profane worlds. The sacrifice (Latin sacri-ficium, “making sacred”) is a consecration of an offering through which the profane world has access to the sacred without being destroyed by the sacred. Instead, the sacrificial object (victim) is destroyed in serving as a unique, extraordinary channel between these two realms. In sacrificial rites it is important to duplicate the original (divine) act; and because creation is variously conceived in different religious traditions, different forms are preserved: the burning or crushing of the “corn mother,” the crushing of the soma stalks, the slaughter of the lamb without blemish, the blood spilling of a sacred person, such as the firstborn.

      Sacredness is manifested in sacred officials, such as priests and kings; in specially designated sacred places, such as temples and images; and in natural objects (ceremonial object), such as rivers, the sun, mountains, or trees. The priest (priesthood) is a special agent in the religious cult, his ritual actions represent the divine action. Similarly, the king (sacred kingship) or emperor is a special mediator between heaven and earth and has been called by such names as the “son of heaven,” or an “arm of god.”

      Just as certain persons are consecrated, so specific places are designated as the “gate of heaven.” Temples and shrines are recognized by devotees as places where special attitudes and restrictions prevail because they are the abode of the sacred. Likewise, certain images (iconography) of God (and sacred books) are held to be uniquely powerful and true (pure) expressions of divine reality. The image and the temple are, in traditional societies, not simply productions by individual artists and architects; they are reflections of the sacred essence of life, and their measurements and forms are specified through sacred communication from the divine sphere. In this same context, natural objects can be imbued with sacred power. The sun, for example, is the embodiment of the power of life, the source of all human consciousness, the central pivot for the eternal rhythm and order of existence. Or, a river, such as the Nile for the ancient Egyptians and the Ganges for the Hindu, gave witness to the power of life incarnated in geography. Sacred mountains (e.g., Sinai for Jews, Kailāsa for Hindus, Fujiyama for Japanese) were particular loci of divine power, law, and truth.

Dimensions of the sacred
      The sacred, by definition, pervades all dimensions of life. Within the kind of religious apprehension that is expressed in sacred myth and ritual, however, there is a special focus on time, place (cosmos), and active agents (heroes, ancestors, divinities). When existence is seen in terms of the dichotomy of sacred and profane—which assumes that the sacred is wholly other than, yet necessary for, everyday existence—it is very important to know and to get in contact with the sacred. In periodic festivals men celebrate sacred time; a sacred calendar marks off the intervals of man's life, and these sacred festivals provide the pattern for productive and joyous living.

      Seasonal sacred calendars are especially important in predominantly agricultural (agriculture, origins of) societies. In the very order of nature, people see that different seasons have their distinct values. These differences are celebrated with spring festivals (when the world is re-created through ritual expressions of generation) and harvest festivals (of thanksgiving and of protecting the life force in seeds for the next spring). Here time is regarded as cyclical, and one's life is marked by those rituals in which one continually returns to the divine source.

      Similarly, the myths and rituals mark off the world ( Cosmos) into places that have special sacred significance. The territory in which one lives is real insofar as it is in contact with the divine reality. Within this territory is life; outside it is chaos, danger, and demons. Throughout most of history the “sacred world” was coextensive with a certain territory, and one could speak literally of Christian lands, the Jewish homeland, the Muslim world, the place of the noble people (Āryāvarta, Hindu), or the central kingdom (China). Consecrating one's possession of land with certain rituals was equal to establishing an order with divine sanction. In Vedic (Vedic religion) ritual, for example, the erection of a fire altar (in which the god Agni—fire—was present) was the establishment of a cosmos on a microcosmic scale. Once a cosmos is established, there are certain places that are especially sacred. Certain rivers, mountains, groves of trees, caves, or human constructions such as temples, shrines, or cities provide the “gate,” “ladder,” “navel,” or “pole” between heaven and earth. This sacred place is that which both allows the sacred power to flow into existence and gives order and stability to life.

      Another dimension of the sacred is divine or heroic activity: the decisive action done by creative or protective agents. One's spiritual ancestors need not be biologically defined ancestors; they may not even be human. They are the essential forces on which survival depends and can be embodied in animal skills (longevity, rebirth, magical skills), in the “ways of the ancients,” or through a special hero who has provided present existence with material and spiritual benefits. If the notion of sacred manifestation is extended to include the social relationships (especially tabus) in a community, then communal relations can be viewed as a dimension through which the sacred is manifested. Here human values are sacralized by social restraints that prescribe—e.g., with whom one can eat or whom one can marry or kill. The establishment of a community requires forming certain relationships; and these relationships are sacred when they bear the power of ultimate, eternal, cosmic force. For example, the consecration of a king or emperor in traditional agricultural societies was the establishment of a system of allegiance and order for society.

      By extending the notion of “sacralization” to include human reorganization of experience within the context of any absolute norm, the sacred can be seen in such dimensions of life as history, self-consciousness, aesthetics, and philosophical reflection (conceptualization). Each of these modes of human experience can become the creative force whereby some people have “become real” and gained the most profound understanding of themselves.

Critical problems
      Phenomenologists of religion who use the concept “sacred” as a universal term for the basis of religion differ in their estimation of the nature of the sacred manifestation. Otto and van der Leeuw hold (in different formulations) that the sacred is a reality that transcends the apprehension of the sacred in symbols or rituals. The forms (ideograms) through which the sacred is expressed are secondary and are simply reactions to the “wholly other.” Kristensen and Eliade (Eliade, Mircea), on the other hand, regard the sacred reality to be available through the particular symbols or ways of apprehending the sacred. Thus, Kristensen places emphasis on how the sacred is apprehended, and Eliade describes different modalities of the sacred, while Otto looks beyond the forms toward a meta-empirical source.

      A second problem is the continuing question of whether or not the sacred is a universal category. There are religious expressions from various parts of the world that clearly manifest the kind of structure of religious awareness characterized above. It is especially apropos of some aspects in the religion of nonliterate societies, the ancient Near East, and some popular devotional aspects of Hinduism. There is, however, a serious question regarding the usefulness of this structure in interpreting a large part of Chinese religion, the social relationships (dharma) in Hinduism, the effort to achieve superconscious awareness in Hinduism (Yoga), Jainism, Buddhism (Zen), some forms of Taoism, and some contemporary (modern) options of total commitment that, nevertheless, reject the notion of an absolute source and goal essentially different from human existence. If one takes the notion of sacred as something above (beyond, different from) the religious structure dominated by divine or transcendent activity (described above), then this suggests that the notion of sacredness should not be limited to that structure. Thus, some scholars have found it confusing to use the notion of sacred as a universal religious quality, for it has been accepted by many religious people and by scholars of religion as referring to only one (though important) type of religious consciousness.

      The 20th-century discussion of the nature and manifestation of the sacred includes other approaches than those of scholars in the comparative study of religions. For example, Sri Aurobindo (Aurobindo, Śrī), a Hindu mystic-philosopher, speaks of the supreme reality as the “Consciousness-Force”; and Nishida Kitaro (Nishida Kitarō), a Japanese philosopher, expresses his apprehension of universal reality as that of “absolute Nothingness.” Martin Heidegger (Heidegger, Martin), a German philosopher, speaks of “the holy” as that dimension of existence through which there is the illumination of the things that are, though it is no absolute Being prior to existence; rather it is a creative act at the point of engaging the Nothing (Nichts). In contrast, the Protestant theologian Karl Barth (Barth, Karl) rejects philosophical reflection or mystical insight for apprehending the sacred, and insists that personal acceptance of God's self-revelation in a particular historical form, Jesus Christ, is the place to begin any awareness of what philosophers call “ultimate.”

      Sociologists who study religion have, since Durkheim, usually identified the sacred with social values that claim a supernatural basis. Nevertheless, the sacred has been identified predominantly as found in the social occasions (festivals) that disrupt the common social order (by Caillois), or as the reinforcing of social activities that secure a given social structure (by Howard Becker (Becker, Howard S.)). During the 1960s, however, the usual definition of religion as those sacred activities which claimed a transcendent source was questioned by some empirical scholars. For example, Thomas Luckmann, a German-American sociologist, described the sacred in modern society as that “strata of significance to which everyday life is ultimately referred”; and this definition includes such themes as “the autonomous individual” and “the mobility ethos.”

The sacred today
      The problems of defining and investigating religion mentioned above are already expressive of the shifts in modern consciousness regarding the sacred. Both the physical and social sciences have given modern man a new image of himself and techniques for improving his present life. The acceptance of rational and critical perspectives for judging the claims of religious authorities in Europe since the 18th century, plus the development of historical criticism and a sense of historical relativism, has contributed to the affirmation of man as basically a secular person. The once absolute authorities in the West (the Bible, priest, rabbi) are no longer the prime sources for one's self-identity. To a growing extent the cultures in the East are also experiencing a loss of their traditional authorities. Some attempts have been made to resacralize contemporary cosmology, history, and personal experience by (1) extending the scope of religious concerns to “secular” areas such as politics, economics, personality development, and art; and (2) modifying theological positions, ethical norms, and liturgical forms to incorporate new modes of expression and to experiment with new styles of living.

      An important 20th-century development in religious life has been the easy flow of information between religious communities on different continents. This has provided an opportunity for experimenting with religious forms from outside the traditionally acceptable forms in a culture. During the 1950s and 1960s, for example, Yoga and Zen meditation were serious religious options for some Westerners and a form of experimentation for large numbers. The concern to experiment with personal experience and with styles of living during the 1960s in the West has itself been considered an important religious expression by some commentators. These years saw considerable exploration in exotic experience with psychedelic drugs, many attempts to set up new communities for group living (communes)—though few lasted more than a year—and a shift in the values of middle class youth from a concern for personal economic security to social and experiential concerns. These recent activities may be viewed as attempts to recapture the experience of the sacred.

      Throughout the past hundred years a number of philosophers and social scientists have asserted the disappearance of the sacred and predicted the demise of religion. A study of the history of religions shows that religious forms change and that there has never been unanimity on the nature and expression of religion. Whether or not man is now in a new situation for developing structures of ultimate values radically different from those provided in the traditionally affirmed awareness of the sacred is a vital question. The suggestion that a radically different kind of reality is possible is, of course, nonsense for those to whom the sacred already has been manifested once and for all in a particular form.

Frederick J. Streng

Additional Reading
The socio-anthropological analyses written near the beginning of the 20th century that are still useful for their interpretations of the sacred in preliterate societies include Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss, Essai sur la nature et le fonction du sacrifice (1899; Eng. trans., Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function, 1964); and Émile Durkheim, Les Formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse, le système totémique en Australia (1912; Eng. trans., The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, 1965). More recently, in the same vein, are E.O. James, Sacrifice and Sacrament (1962), a comparative analysis of sacred ritual from many different religious traditions; and Roger Caillois, L'Homme et le sacré (1939; Eng. trans., Man and the Sacred, 1960), a general reflective interpretation of various social expressions of the sacred. The following combine philosophical and theological concerns: Rudolf Otto, Das Heilige (1917; Eng. trans., The Idea of the Holy, 1923), an appeal to an a priori preconceptual knowledge of the holy; Max F. Scheler, Vom Ewigen im Menschen, 2nd ed. (1923; Eng. trans., On the Eternal in Man, 1960), an intuitive philosopher's argument for the eternal reality of the sacred prior to man's awareness or social expression of it; Nathan Soderblom, “Holiness,” Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 6:731–41 (1928, reprinted 1955), which stressed the quality of holiness in all religion four years prior to Otto's more famous statement, and his Living God: Basal Forms of Personal Religion (1933), a comparative study of religion organized according to various ways through which man encounters God; and Joachim Wach, The Comparative Study of Religions, ed. by J.M. Kitagawa (1958), a systematic analysis of the modes (thought, action, fellowship) used to express the religious experience. Two Dutch phenomenologists of religion who have made notable contributions to the interpretation of forms that express man's relation to the sacred are Gerardus van der Leeuw, whose Phänomenologie der Religion (1933; Eng. trans., Religion in Essence and Manifestation, 1963) organizes a wide spectrum of data into three foci: the object of religion, the subject of religion, and their reciprocal relation; and W. Brede Kristensen, who wrote The Meaning of Religion (1960), a series of lectures given during the 1930s on the sacredness of man's cosmological, anthropological, and cultic awareness as expressed in the preliterate cultures and those of the ancient Mediterranean area. An extensive analysis of the forms and modes in which the sacred is recognized is found in the writings of Mircea Eliade, for whom the apprehension of the sacred is a unique kind of experience in which the creative power(s) of life appear(s) in particular symbols, myths, and rites. Four of his works that deal with the nature and meaning of the sacred in different types of expression are: Le Mythe de l'éternel retour (1949; Eng. trans., The Myth of the Eternal Return, 1954, reissued 1989); Myth and Reality (1963); Traité d'histoire des religions (Eng. trans., Patterns in Comparative Religion, 1958); and The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (1959).

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Universalium. 2010.

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