diagnosis

diagnosis
/duy'euhg noh"sis/, n., pl. diagnoses /-seez/.
1. Med.
a. the process of determining by examination the nature and circumstances of a diseased condition.
b. the decision reached from such an examination. Abbr.: Dx
2. Biol. scientific determination; a description that classifies a group or taxon precisely.
3. a determining or analysis of the cause or nature of a problem or situation.
4. an answer or solution to a problematic situation.
[1675-85; < NL < Gk diágnosis a distinguishing. See DIA-, -GNOSIS]

* * *

Identification of a disease or disorder.

Diagnosis requires a medical history (including family history), a physical examination, and usually tests and diagnostic procedures (e.g., blood analysis, diagnostic imaging). A list of possible causes
the differential diagnosis
is developed and then narrowed down by further tests that eliminate or support specific possibilities.

* * *

Introduction
 the process of determining the nature of a disease or disorder and distinguishing it from other possible conditions. The term comes from the Greek gnosis, meaning knowledge.

      The diagnostic process is the method by which health professionals select one disease over another, identifying one as the most likely cause of a person's symptoms. Symptoms that appear early in the course of a disease are often more vague and undifferentiated than those that arise as the disease progresses, making this the most difficult time to make an accurate diagnosis. Reaching an accurate conclusion depends on the timing and the sequence of the symptoms, past medical history and risk factors for certain diseases, and a recent exposure to disease. The physician, in making a diagnosis, also relies on various other clues such as physical signs, nonverbal signals of distress, and the results of selected laboratory and radiological tests. From the large number of facts obtained, a list of possible diagnoses can be determined, which are referred to as the differential diagnosis. The physician organizes the list with the most likely diagnosis given first. Additional information is identified, and appropriate tests are selected that will narrow the list or confirm one of the possible diseases.

Historical aspects
      Traditionally, diagnosis has been defined as the art of identifying a disease from its signs and symptoms. Formerly, few diagnostic tests were available to assist the physician who depended on medical history, observation, and examination. Only recently, with the many technological advances in medicine, have tests become available to assist in making specific diagnoses.

      Medicine and personal hygiene reached new heights in the 5th century BC at the time of the Greek (ancient Greek civilization) physician Hippocrates. The Greeks recognized the salubrious effects of bathing, fresh air, a good diet, and exercise, which have received renewed attention today. Illness was thought to result from an imbalance between the four humours of the body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. The Greeks emphasized the value of observation, including bodily signs and excretions. The focus, however, was more on predicting the outcome of an illness (i.e., prognosis) and less on its diagnosis. A physician's reputation depended on accurate prognostic skills, predicting who would recover and who would die or how long an illness would last.

      Hippocrates is credited with establishing the ethical basis of the physician's behaviour, and graduating physicians still recite the oath ascribed to him. His writings document the value of objectively evaluating all aspects of the patient's symptoms, diet, sleep patterns, and habits. No finding was considered insignificant, and physicians were encouraged to employ all their senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch—in making a diagnosis. These principles hold just as true today.

      The Romans made significant advances in supplying and purifying water and in improving sanitation.

      Galen (Galen Of Pergamum) (AD 130–200) is considered the most influential physician after Hippocrates because of his extensive studies in anatomy and physiology. His voluminous writings in anatomy and physiology rendered him the ultimate authority in these fields until the 16th century. As the first experimental neurologist, he described the cranial nerves and the sympathetic nervous system. He showed that the heart will continue beating when removed from the body and thus does not depend on the nervous system. Many of his views, however, contained fallacies, which remained unchallenged for centuries. His description of the heart and its chambers and valves, in which he contended that blood passes from the right to the left ventricle by means of invisible pores in the interventricular septum, delayed the discovery of blood circulation for 14 centuries. The true nature of the circulation of blood was not recognized until the time of William Harvey (Harvey, William) (1578–1657), who published his findings in Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus (translated as An Anatomical Dissertation Upon the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals and usually referred to as De Motu Cordis).

      From the Middle Ages to the 18th century, uroscopy (examination of the urine) was a common method for diagnosing illness. The colour of the urine, as well as cloudiness, precipitates, and particles in the urine, was believed to indicate the cause of the disorder.

      One of the greatest advances in diagnostic tools (technology, history of) was the invention of the compound microscope toward the end of the 16th century by the Dutch spectacle makers Hans Jansen and his son Zacharias. In the early 17th century Galileo constructed a microscope and a telescope. One of the great early microscopists, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van) (1632–1723), was the first to see protozoa and bacteria and the first to describe red blood cells. He also demonstrated the capillary anastomosis (network) between arteries and veins that proved Harvey to be correct.

      Although the mercury thermometer of Daniel Fahrenheit (Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel) (1686–1736) appeared about 1714, it was not until 1866 that it came into general use as a clinical tool. It was initially 25.4 centimetres (10 inches) long and took five minutes to register a temperature. A pocket version was developed by Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt (Allbutt, Sir Thomas Clifford) in 1866. The thermometer was popularized by Karl August Wunderlich who thought, incorrectly, that every disease had its own characteristic fever pattern.

      Another significant medical advance, which greatly improved the ability to diagnose diseases of the chest and heart, was the invention of the stethoscope in 1816 by René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laënnec (Laënnec, René-Théophile-Hyacinthe) (1781–1826). Before this, the lungs and heart were examined by applying the ear to the chest wall. Laënnec initially used a roll of papers to enhance sounds from the chest and later replaced this “instrument” with a wooden cylinder. He improved the original monaural (one-ear) stethoscope with the binaural device still in current use. Tuberculosis was prominent at the time, and the stethoscope allowed Laënnec to diagnose this condition at an earlier stage than was previously possible.

      Another significant diagnostic aid was the ophthalmoscope developed by Hermann von Helmholtz (Helmholtz, Hermann von) (1821–94), a physician best known for his knowledge of physics and mathematics. With this device, the retina and blood vessels could be seen through the pupil, allowing the inner eye to provide information not only concerning diseases of the eye but also about those pertaining to cardiovascular abnormalities and complications of diabetes mellitus.

      Perhaps the greatest modern anatomic diagnostic tool is the X ray (X-ray), discovered in 1895 by the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad). X rays have since been commonly referred to as roentgen rays, and their application eventually led to the development of computerized tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, two techniques that are extremely useful modern diagnostic tools.

      The training of physicians also has undergone significant change over the years. Until the end of the 19th century, physicians were trained through lectures and rarely were taught at the patient's bedside. This practice was altered by Sir William Osler (Osler, Sir William, Baronet) during his time as professor of medicine at Johns Hopkins Hospital. One of the most renowned physicians of the early 20th century, he introduced the practice of instructing students at the bedside of the patient. He emphasized the importance of taking an accurate medical history, providing a thorough examination of a patient, and closely observing the patient's behaviour to gather clues for a diagnosis before resorting to laboratory testing.

Medical history
      The medical history of a patient is the most useful and important element in making an accurate diagnosis, much more valuable than either physical examinations or diagnostic tests. The medical interview is the process of gathering data that will lead to an understanding of the disease and the underlying physiological process. To be effective, an interviewer must possess good communication skills and be alert to nonverbal clues as well as to the verbal message. Often, more information is conveyed by nonverbal actions and tone of voice than by words. The objective is to obtain an accurate and comprehensive picture of the patient's situation, including the nature and timing of symptoms, emotional factors (including types of stress), and past medical conditions that may place the patient at greater risk for certain diseases.

      The accuracy and usefulness of the medical interview depend on the physician's ability to elicit information pertinent to the problem at hand and on the patient's accurate recall and articulation of the sequence of symptoms. This may be difficult because meaningful data may be forgotten if the patient is experiencing pain or emotional distress. The skilled interviewer knows when to use silence, open-ended questions, or specific closed-ended questions to explore avenues in which the most useful information may be found. The real reason for the patient's visit may not be apparent until a rapport has been established and the person feels comfortable describing what is most bothersome. Problems that are emotionally threatening may not be voiced until adequate courage is summoned—sometimes not until the end of the appointment when the patient's hand is on the doorknob.

      A complete medical history consists of an account of the present illness, the past medical history, family history, occupational background, psychosocial history, and a review of body systems.

      An account of the present illness, which includes the circumstances surrounding the onset of recent health changes and the chronology of subsequent events that have led the patient to seek medical care, is essential to understanding the course of the disease process. Current medications are listed in the medical history because they may play a role in the current illness.

      The past medical history is an overall view of the patient's health prior to the present illness. It should include previous hospitalizations, injuries, operations, and any significant illness that may not have required hospitalization. Allergies are included here if not listed separately.

      Included in a family history are the age and state of health of each immediate family member as well as the cause of death of any parents, grandparents, and other close relatives. Of particular importance are genetic or environmental diseases that have known risks. If a close relative such as a father died of a heart attack (acute myocardial infarction) before the age of 60, all his children are at greater risk of suffering an early heart attack. This risk increases if other factors such as hypertension (high blood pressure) or elevated serum cholesterol are present. Similarly, a history of some cancers (e.g., colon cancer) increases the risk for offspring to develop that type of cancer. The development of lung cancer in a parent provides even greater impetus for close relatives to avoid smoking. Other diseases that may have hereditary or environmental roots are diabetes, hypertension, tuberculosis, depression and other forms of mental illness, arthritis, and epilepsy. Actually, any disease that arises in two or more members of a family suggests a possible predisposing factor, and the patient should be considered to be at increased risk for this condition.

      The occupational history is important because the workplace may be a source of toxins, such as chemicals, asbestos fibres, or cigarette smoke, that place one at higher risk of cancer or other diseases.

      The psychosocial history—information on education, lifestyle, marital status, and religious beliefs—may influence future medical decisions, as may the patient's smoking history, alcohol intake, and use of such controlled substances as marijuana or cocaine.

      The review of body systems allows the physician to identify any other symptoms that have not been noted previously and that may influence the patient's current state of health or provide subtle clues to the diagnosis. All major body systems are reviewed in an orderly manner, usually from the head down to the extremities. The intent is to uncover any past illnesses or problems that have not been previously identified and that may now or later influence the patient's health. For example, the patient may describe leg pain while walking, which could be an early indication of blood vessel occlusion and increase the physician's concern about possible coronary artery disease that otherwise may not have been suspected.

Physical examination

Manual procedures
      The physical examination continues the diagnostic process, adding information obtained by inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation (see below). When data accumulated from the history and physical examination are complete, a working diagnosis is established, and tests are selected that will help to retain or exclude that diagnosis.

      Patients are usually apprehensive and anxious when being examined because they feel exposed, vulnerable, and afraid of discomfort. The physician attempts to allay that anxiety by explaining which examinations are to be performed and the degree of discomfort that will be entailed. Throughout the examination, concern for the patient's dignity must be maintained.

      A wide array of sophisticated instruments is available to assist with examinations, but a well-performed visual inspection can often reveal more information. Osler admonished physicians to closely observe patients before touching them, to cultivate the power of observation, as it is one of the greatest diagnostic tools. Wasting and hallmarks of poor nutrition may indicate chronic disease; poor grooming or slack posture may suggest depression or low self-esteem.

      Inspection begins with the patient's general appearance, state of nutrition, symmetry, and posture. The physician then proceeds to more specific examination of the skin—looking for redness or other signs of infection, hair loss, nail thickening, and moles or other areas of pigmentation—and inquires about any recent changes in skin lesions that could indicate early cancer.

      Examination of the nails can provide important clues about systemic disease. Clubbing of the nails (broadening of the nailbeds, with curved and shiny nails) may indicate congenital heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchogenic carcinoma, or another cardiac or pulmonary condition. Pitting of the nails occurs in about 50 percent of patients with psoriasis.

      Inspection should encompass, in particular, areas that the patient normally would not be able to see, such as the scalp, back, and buttocks.

      The skin should always be inspected for cancer, though it is sometimes difficult to differentiate a benign mole (nevus) from a cancer. The most dangerous skin cancer, malignant melanoma, occurs in about 1 in 10,000 people and can spread readily throughout the body. A squamous-cell carcinoma also may spread but is slow to do so and can be completely cured by early detection and removal. Basal-cell cancer is the most common form of skin cancer, and, though it is locally invasive, it almost never spreads distantly to other parts of the body. Suspicious lesions are those that have recently enlarged, started to bleed, become darker, or developed an irregular outline. Most skin cancers occur on areas of the body that have been exposed to the sun; they are more common in light-skinned individuals with blond hair and blue eyes who sunburn easily.

      The most common premalignant (precancerous) skin lesion is actinic keratosis, a rough, scaling, red or brown papule that appears on sun-exposed areas such as a bald scalp, ears, the forehead, and the back of the hands. These lesions can be easily removed by cryotherapy (therapeutic use of cold), electrodesiccation (dehydration of tissue by electric current), or surgical excision. Some skin lesions, including melanoma, are treated with local excision.

      Palpation is the act of feeling the surface of the body with the hands to determine the characteristics of the organs beneath the surface. It can be performed with one hand or two and can be light or deep.

      Light palpation is used to detect tenderness, muscle spasm, or rigidity of the abdomen. If abdominal pain is present, gentle palpation begins farthest away from the pain to localize the point of maximum tenderness. Acute inflammation in the abdomen, as in acute appendicitis, causes peritoneal irritation, resulting in not only localized tenderness in the right lower abdomen but also a guarding reaction (tightening and rigidity) by the muscles in that area to protect the inflamed organ from the external pressure.

      Deep palpation of the abdomen is used to determine the size of the liver, spleen, or kidneys and to detect an abnormal mass. An abdominal aortic aneurysm can be detected by palpating a pulsatile mass in the upper abdomen. An acutely tender mass in the right upper abdomen that is more painful on inspiration is probably an inflamed gallbladder. An unexplained nontender abdominal mass could be as nonthreatening as a hard stool or as serious as a tumour.

      Palpation also is used to detect and evaluate abnormal lesions in the breast (mammary gland), prostate, lymph nodes, or testicles. Proper breast examination includes frequent (at least monthly) self-examinations and an annual examination by a physician. Palpation should be methodical and performed over the entire breast; the method of action is done either in concentric circles or outward from the nipple using a spokes-of-a-wheel approach. Suspicious breast lesions are hard and fixed rather than movable. Skin retraction or breast asymmetry can indicate an underlying, potentially serious lesion. Cancers are usually not tender, and benign lesions are more likely to be round, elastic or firm, movable, and well-defined. Similarly, suspicious prostate lesions are hard, irregular nodules within the prostate, whereas benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a soft symmetrical enlargement of the gland.

      Palpation also can detect cardiac (cardiovascular disease) enlargement if the point of maximal impulse (PMI) of the heart is farther left than normal. Other cardiac abnormalities can be suspected if a thrill is felt using light palpation over the chest wall. A thrill is a vibratory sensation felt on the skin overlying an area of turbulence and indicates a loud heart murmur usually caused by an incompetent heart valve.

      Percussion is a diagnostic procedure used to determine the density of a part by tapping the surface with short, sharp blows and evaluating the resulting sounds (sound). In the abdomen it can be used to detect fluid (ascites), a gaseous distention of the intestine as occurs in bowel obstruction, or an enlargement of the liver. It is used most often to evaluate the chest. Percussion produces a resonant note when the area over a healthy lung is struck; a dull sound, however, will emanate if the lung contains fluid, as in pneumonia, or when a region over a solid mass such as the heart is tapped. A lung that is diseased with emphysema contains more air than a healthy lung and produces hyperresonance. A stomach distended with air will produce a high-pitched, hollow tympanic sound.

      Auscultation is performed with a stethoscope to evaluate sounds produced by the heart, lungs, blood vessels, or bowels. The lack of bowel sounds indicates a nonfunctioning or paralyzed bowel, and high-pitched “tinkling” bowel sounds suggest bowel obstruction. The “growling” of the stomach is an accentuation of these sounds during periods of bowel hyperactivity.

      Bruits are blowing vascular sounds resembling heart murmurs that are perceived over partially occluded blood vessels. When detected over the carotid arteries, a bruit may indicate an increased risk of stroke; when produced by the abdomen, it may indicate partial obstruction of the aorta or other major arteries such as the renal, iliac, or femoral arteries.

      Listening to the sound of air passing in and out of the lungs can be useful in detecting an obstruction as in asthma or an inflammation as in bronchitis or pneumonia. Adventitious sounds are those heard in addition to normal breathing sounds and include crackles, wheezes, and rubs. Crackles (also called rales) resemble the sound made by rubbing hair between the fingers next to the ear. They are caused by fluid in the small passageways that adheres to the walls during respiration. Crackles are heard in congestive heart failure and pneumonia. Wheezes, musical sounds heard mostly during expiration, are caused by rapid airflow through a partially obstructed airway as in asthma or bronchitis. Pleural rubs sound like creaking leather and are caused by pleural surfaces roughened by inflammation moving against each other, which occurs in patients with pneumonia and pulmonary infarction.

      Cardiac (cardiovascular disease) auscultation is the evaluation of the sounds made by the heart valves—namely, the aortic, pulmonary, tricuspid, and mitral—for murmurs that may be due to turbulent blood flow or vibrations from a heart valve deformity. Murmurs may be physiological (unimportant clinically) or pathological, indicating a problem that needs attention, especially if they reflect obstruction of normal blood flow. Heart murmurs vary according to their timing in the cardiac cycle (i.e., during systole, the period of contraction when blood is pumped from the heart ventricles, or diastole, the period of filling of the right and left ventricles between contraction), location, duration, intensity, pitch, and quality. Intensity is graded on a scale from 1 to 6, with 6 being the loudest. Heart murmurs are described as “grade 2/6”—the numerator represents the intensity of the murmur, and the denominator indicates the highest grade of the scale being used. However, the intensity of the murmur alone provides little information about the clinical severity of the problem. An ejection murmur caused by turbulence across the aortic valve during systole can be either serious or nonthreatening depending on its cause, even though the intensity of the murmur may be the same. Therefore, the pitch and quality of the murmur also are described. Pitch is usually reported as high or low, and quality is described as harsh, soft, blowing, musical, or rumbling. For example, the murmur of mitral stenosis may be described as a grade 3/6, low-pitched, rumbling, presystolic murmur heard best at the apex and having an increased first heart sound at the apex.

Special examinations
      Of greatest importance in an emergency is the evaluation of systems that are essential to sustaining life—namely, the circulatory, respiratory (respiratory disease), and central nervous systems.

      First, the person in distress should be checked to determine whether breathing is normal or at least whether there is adequate exchange of air to ensure oxygenation of the blood. If the person is unconscious, the first maneuver is to tilt the head back and lift the chin (unless a neck injury is suspected) to prevent the tongue and jaw from obstructing the airway and then to provide artificial respiration. If the person has eaten recently, the cause may be obstruction by a foreign body (usually food), and the Heimlich maneuver (subdiaphragmatic abdominal thrust) should be performed.

      Second, the circulation should be evaluated. Is the heart beating, and is the output adequate to provide oxygenated blood to the tissues, or has this been compromised by excessive bleeding? A blood pressure greater than 100/60 millimetres of mercury (mm Hg) indicates adequate perfusion.

       shock occurs when blood pressure falls to extremely low levels. The underlying cause of this precipitous drop characterizes shock; for example, hypovolemic shock is caused by inadequate blood volume, cardiogenic shock is caused by reduced heart function, and neurogenic shock and septic shock are caused by malfunction of the vascular system. This malfunction, which can be caused by severe allergic reaction such as anaphylaxis or by drug overdose, results in severely reduced peripheral vascular tone, in vasodilation, and in pooling of the blood. Signs of shock include a rapid and weak pulse, pale complexion, sweating, and confusion. Organs particularly sensitive to injury if the shock is not corrected are the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, and liver.

      An unconscious person may not respond to external stimulation, in which case the person would be in a coma, or the patient may exhibit varying levels of unconsciousness, responding only to painful stimuli (deep level of unconsciousness) or when shaken or called by name (light level). pupil size and reactivity to light can provide clues to the status of the nervous system. Bilateral dilated pupils that do not contract when a light is placed on one of them indicate death or severe damage to the nervous system. Small pupils that do react to light are seen in narcotic overdose. If one pupil is larger than the other, a brain lesion on one side or hemorrhage should be suspected.

      Examinations to assess the well-being of children (child development) begin at birth. The Apgar score (Apgar Score System), named for the anesthesiologist Virginia Apgar (Apgar, Virginia), is obtained at one and five minutes after birth and indicates the condition of the newborn. A score of 0 (absent), 1, and 2 is given for each of the five parameters, which are heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex irritability, and colour. Infants scoring between 7 and 10 at one minute will likely do well with no special treatment; those scoring between 4 and 6 may require stimulation or brief respiratory support; those scoring 3 or below will probably need extended resuscitative efforts. Infants who have a score of 7 or above at five minutes will continue to do well. The Apgar score is usually reported as two numbers, from 1 to 10, that are separated by a virgule, the first number being the score at one minute, the second the score at five minutes.

      Developmental (biological development) assessment is measured with growth charts developed by the National Center for Health Statistics. A child's length (or height) and weight are plotted over time on standard graphs constructed from data gathered from a large number of average-sized children. The average length of a newborn infant is 50 centimetres (20 inches). The length increases by 50 percent at 12 months of age and doubles to 100 centimetres when the child is 4 years old. The average weight at birth is 3.4 kilograms (7.5 pounds), which doubles in 4 to 5 months and triples when the child is 12 months old. After 2 years of age, height increases by 5 centimetres and weight increases by 2.3 kilograms per year until the growth spurt during adolescence.

      Psychosocial development can be measured using the Denver Developmental Screening Test. This test evaluates motor, language, and social development skills in children up to 6 years of age.

      The adolescent growth spurt is closely associated with the development of the reproductive system. puberty occurs in American girls starting at 10 or 11 years of age (average) and in American boys at age 11. In girls the first sign of puberty is the breast bud followed by breast and pubic hair development. In boys it is growth of the testes with reddening and wrinkling of the scrotum. Pubic hair appears within six months of these first signs of puberty, followed in another six months or so by enlargement of the penis.

      Hearing is evaluated early, and a disorder should be suspected if speech is delayed or abnormal. Vision testing is begun in the newborn to detect strabismus and other congenital abnormalities. Visual acuity can be evaluated in children 2 to 3 years of age. Dental appointments should begin when the child is 2 or 3, because the eruption of primary teeth is usually complete by 2 years of age. Permanent teeth begin erupting about age 6 and are all in place by age 12 or 13 years.

      The number of people in the United States older (human aging) than 65 years of age is increasing rapidly, and demographers project that soon 50 percent of the American population will live to 85 years or older. As the body ages there is a steady loss in organ reserve (ability to function beyond the level normally required, which may be called upon in an emergency), which leads to decreasing functional capacity and increasing vulnerability to disease and disability. Age-related changes include the following:
● Cellular changes occur, including decreased function and number.
● Increased collagen results in greater stiffness and decreased tissue elasticity.
● Muscle mass decreases, as does the mass of the liver, brain, and kidneys.
● Cardiac output is reduced, the ability to respond to stress diminishes, and blood flow to the kidneys and other organs decreases.
● Pulmonary function decreases because the number of alveoli lessens, expiratory muscles weaken, and there is a reduction in elastic recoil.
● Gastrointestinal changes occur, including decreased secretion of stomach acid; decreased intestinal motility, resulting in constipation and dehydration of the stools; slower metabolism of drugs by the liver; increased incidence of gallstones; and loss of teeth, impairing proper chewing and digestion. Diverticulosis occurs in more than 50 percent of persons by age 80.
● Excretory function diminishes because of a decrease in kidney mass and in the number of functioning nephrons.
● Endocrine changes are noted and can include decreased functioning of thyroid and adrenal glands and decreased insulin production by the pancreas along with increasing insulin resistance that results in type II diabetes mellitus.
● Neurological changes occur, including a slowing of nerve conduction velocity, a loss of brain substance, a reduction in the amount of deep sleep and an increase in the number of brief arousals, and a decrease in cerebral blood flow.
● Visual acuity, hearing, taste, and smell decline. Vision is much more limited in dim light. The incidence of glaucoma and cataracts increases.
● Height decreases because of the narrowing of the intervertebral disks and narrowing of the vertebrae, resulting in the loss of five centimetres by the age of 70 years.

       osteoporosis, which is demineralization of bone and loss of bone mass, results in an increased risk of fracture, especially of the hip, wrist, and spine. Bone loss is accelerated in women during menopause but can be prevented by administration of estrogen and calcium. Progesterone is added to prevent endometrial cancer if the uterus is still present.

      Cancers occur most frequently in the elderly. Carcinoma of the colon is predominantly a disease of the geriatric population and is the second leading cause of death from cancer in the United States.

      Depression and other mood disorders are more common among older individuals than among younger persons. The symptoms of depression may be more vague and are more likely to occur as physical symptoms than in other age groups.

      Dementia (loss of intellectual function) is common among the elderly, and Alzheimer's disease is thought to account for more than 60 percent of these cases. Alzheimer's disease is characterized by a slowly progressive cognitive decline, in the absence of other causes of dementia. It affects about 10 percent of all persons older than 65 years of age.

      Psychological dysfunction and stress-related illness are a significant problem in today's increasingly complex society. Anxiety and depression represent the two most common mental health disorders and are responsible for a high degree of morbidity and mortality.

Anxiety disorders
      The most common anxiety disorders are panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, phobic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

      Panic disorder is characterized by four panic attacks within a four-week period or one or more panic attacks followed by at least a month of persistent fear of having another attack. A panic attack is the sudden onset of intense apprehension, fear, or terror and at least four of the following conditions: shortness of breath or a smothering sensation, palpitations or accelerated heart rate, chest pain or discomfort, choking, dizziness or faintness, trembling or shaking, sweating, nausea or abdominal distress, a feeling of unreality, numbness or tingling, hot flashes or chills, fear of dying, and fear of “going crazy,” or losing control. A panic attack is unexpected and does not immediately precede or follow a stressful situation, although the person who experiences the attack usually is in a period of increased stress. Because somatic symptoms play a prominent role in a panic attack, it is easy to mistake the attack for other problems such as heart disease or a gastrointestinal problem. Fortunately, the condition responds well to treatment consisting of pharmacotherapy and supportive counseling by the family physician.

      There is a close association between panic disorder and depression, and a large percentage of persons suffering from panic disorder go on to experience a major depression within the next few years. Such antidepressants as imipramine and desipramine are the most effective treatment for panic disorder and may also provide effective relief of any associated depressive symptoms.

      Agoraphobia, which literally means “fear of the marketplace” and indicates fear of being away from the safety of home, commonly occurs with panic disorder. Although the person avoids being alone, the only desired companions are those to whom no explanation of the agoraphobic behaviour is required. Places where crowds or situations would complicate a swift and unnoticed escape in the event of a panic attack are avoided.

      Generalized anxiety disorder is the unrealistic or excessive worry about two or more life circumstances that is experienced more days than not for a period of six months or longer. Examples would be excessive worry about finances or danger to one's child when there is no reason for this concern. The anxious behaviour indicative of this disorder includes symptoms of motor tension (e.g., trembling or shaky feeling, muscle soreness or tension, and restlessness), autonomic hyperactivity (e.g., shortness of breath, palpitations, and dizziness), and vigilance and scanning, which includes difficulty concentrating, an exaggerated startle response, and a tense, keyed-up feeling.

       post-traumatic stress disorder can result after exposure to a very distressing event that elicits feelings of intense terror, fear, or helplessness. Traumatic events such as having witnessed a murder or the sudden destruction of one's home or having participated in a military battle are cited as causes of this disorder. The person experiences frequent flashbacks and may exhibit increased irritability, have exaggerated startle reactions, and have sleeping difficulties, including nightmares. Intense anxiety can result when the person is exposed to environmental stimuli that symbolize or resemble the event.

      Phobic (phobia) disorder involves the persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation that results in a compulsion to avoid that object or situation. The person recognizes the fear as excessive or unreasonable but cannot control the anxiety associated with it. Agoraphobia is one of the most severe phobias. Other phobias include the fear of heights (acrophobia), confined spaces (claustrophobia), animals, insects, snakes, and flying in airplanes. Social phobia is the fear of social situations in which the person dreads being criticized or humiliated. Performance anxiety is a form of social phobia.

       obsessive-compulsive disorder is marked by recurrent obsessions or compulsions that cause extreme distress and interfere with the normal activities of daily life. Obsessions are persistent ideas, thoughts, impulses, or images that are experienced as intrusive, senseless, and generally repugnant but which cannot be ignored or suppressed. Compulsions are repetitive, intentional behaviours performed in a ritualized manner in an attempt to neutralize the obsession and control the anxiety associated with it.

Disorders of mood
      Major depression and other mood disorders such as dysthymia, bipolar disorder, and cyclothymia are common and very treatable forms of psychiatric problems. Depression is one of the most common conditions encountered in medical practice and affects up to 25 percent of women and 12 percent of men. Untreated depression can persist for two years or longer. Sixty percent of patients who receive treatment and recover will experience a recurrence of depression within three years. Fortunately, most episodes of major depression respond well to treatment.

      For the diagnosis of major depression to be made, a depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities must be present for at least two weeks and at least four of the following symptoms must be experienced: sleep disturbance (usually early morning awakening), fatigue or loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt, diminished ability to concentrate or make decisions, agitation (anxiety or restlessness) or slowed movements, change in appetite with or without weight loss, and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide.

      Dysthymia, or minor depression, is the presence of a depressed mood for most of the day for two years with no more than two months' freedom from symptoms. In addition at least two of the following symptoms must occur concurrently with the depression: disruption in eating habits—poor appetite or overeating; disturbed sleeping pattern—insomnia or hypersomnia; low energy or fatigue; low self-esteem; poor concentration or difficulty making decisions; and a feeling of hopelessness.

       bipolar disorder (manic-depressive disorder) is characterized by recurrent episodes of mania and major depression. Most of those who suffer from this condition (60 to 80 percent) initially manifest a manic phase, followed by depression. Manic symptoms consist of feelings of inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, a decreased need for sleep, unusual loquacity, an unconnected flow of ideas, distractibility, or excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high potential for painful consequences, such as buying sprees or sexual indiscretions. lithium is an effective drug for controlling these symptoms, although additional medications such as a benzodiazepine are needed to counteract an acute manic phase, and other antidepressants are necessary to treat bouts of major depression.

      Cyclothymia is a chronic mood disturbance and is a milder form of bipolar disorder. For this diagnosis to be made, the patient will have exhibited at least two years of hypomania (moderate mania) and numerous periods of depressed mood that do not meet the criteria for major depression.

Tests and diagnostic procedures
Clinical laboratory tests
      Laboratory tests can be valuable aids in making a diagnosis, but, as screening tools for detecting hidden disease in asymptomatic individuals, their usefulness is limited. The value of a test as a diagnostic aid depends on its sensitivity and specificity. Sensitivity is the measure of the percentage of individuals with the disease who have a positive test result (i.e., people with the disease who are correctly identified by the procedure), and specificity is the measure of the percentage of people without the disease who have a negative test result (i.e., healthy individuals correctly identified as free of the disease). If a test is 100 percent sensitive and the test result is negative, it can be said with certainty that the person does not have the disease, because there will be no false-negative results. If the test is not specific enough, however, it will yield a large number of false-positive results (positive test results for those who do not have the disease). The ideal test would be 100 percent sensitive and 100 percent specific; an example would be an early pregnancy test that was so accurate that it was positive in every woman who was pregnant and was never positive in a woman who was not pregnant. Unfortunately no such test exists. The normal value for a test is based on 95 percent of the population tested being free of disease, meaning that 1 out of every 20 test results in healthy individuals will be outside the normal range and therefore positive for the disease.

      In the past, physicians would order selected tests based on the likelihood that the person had a certain disease. With the advent of automated analyzers, an increasing number and variety of tests have been made available at greatly reduced cost so that as many as 18 or more tests can be performed for what it previously cost to carry out three or four individual tests. A panel of chemical tests for blood and urine have become routine components of the basic medical workup. A disadvantage of this strategy is that each test produces some false-positive results and requires additional tests to rule out these diseases. The trend is reversing to perform only those tests most likely to be cost-effective.

      A normal laboratory value is one that falls within a range that represents most healthy individuals. It is clear, however, that some healthy persons will have values outside that range and some individuals with disease will have values within the normal range. Thus, no sharp line divides normal and abnormal values. Tables of normal reference values must be updated regularly to react to changes in laboratory technique. Many normal values vary dramatically with age and gender.

      Worldwide, the standard for reporting laboratory measurements is the International System of Units (SI units). The United States is the only major industrialized country that has not adopted the International System and continues to use customary units of measurement. Most tables provide both units to facilitate communication and understanding.

Body fluid tests

      Blood is composed of plasma and blood cells. The blood cells—erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets)—are suspended in the plasma with other particulate matter. Plasma is a clear, straw-coloured fluid that makes up more than half the volume of blood. It is distinguished from serum, the clear, cell-free fluid in which fibrinogen has been converted to fibrin and from which some clotting proteins have been removed. Serum is formed when the plasma or whole blood is allowed to clot. Centrifugation can be used to separate the plasma or serum from blood samples. Tests to measure the concentration of substances in the blood may use plasma, serum, or whole blood that has been anticoagulated to keep all the contents in suspension.

 A complete blood count (CBC) is a measure of the hematologic parameters of the blood (see the table—> for reference values). Included in the CBC is the calculation of the number of red blood cells (red blood cell count) or white blood cells (white blood cell count) in a cubic millimetre (mm3) of blood, a differential white blood cell count, a hemoglobin assay, a hematocrit, calculations of red cell volume, and a platelet count.

      The differential white blood cell count includes measurements of the different types of white blood cells that constitute the total white blood cell count: the band neutrophils, segmented neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. A specific infection can be suspected based on the type of leukocyte that has an abnormal value. Viral infections usually affect the lymphocyte count, whereas bacterial infections increase the percentage of band neutrophils. Eosinophils are increased in those with allergic conditions and some parasitic infections. Infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), damages the body's ability to fight infection. The immune system of a healthy individual responds to infection by increasing the number of white blood cells; however, the immune system infected with HIV is unable to mount a defense of white blood cells (namely, lymphocytes) and cannot defend the body against viral, bacterial, or parasitic assault.

      Calculations of red blood cells provide important information on the possible etiology (origin) of a disease. For example, the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) is the most useful indicator for anemia. The reticulocyte count, which measures the number of young red blood cells being produced, is used to distinguish between anemias resulting from a decrease in production of erythrocytes and those caused by an increase in destruction or loss of erythrocytes. An increase in the number of red blood cells (polycythemia) is normal for persons living at high altitudes, but in most of the population it indicates disease.

      Platelets (platelet), small structures that are two to four micrometres in diameter, play a role in blood clotting. A decrease in the platelet count can result in bleeding if the number falls to a value below 20,000 platelets per microlitre. Counts above 50,000 to 100,000 per microlitre may be required for invasive or surgical procedures. In addition, platelet function is also important. For example, patients with a normal platelet count who have been on antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin may have increased or severe bleeding when subjected to cardiovascular surgical procedures.

      Hematopoiesis (blood cell formation) (the production of blood cells) occurs in the bone marrow, and many types of blood disorders can be diagnosed best by analyzing a sample of bone marrow removed by a needle from the centre of the pelvic bone or the sternum (bone marrow biopsy).

      Bleeding (bleeding and blood clotting) disorders are suspected when blood is seen in the skin (purpura) or a wound is delayed in clotting. In addition to a low platelet count in the peripheral blood, there may be a decrease in megakaryocytes, cells in the bone marrow that form platelets. A bleeding time greater than 20 minutes indicates an abnormality of platelet function. Other screening tests for coagulation disorders include the prothrombin time (PT) test, the activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) test, and the plasma fibrinogen assay. Specific procoagulant proteins, which are enzymes essential to the clotting of blood, should be assayed if a disorder associated with one of them is suspected. For example, factor VIII or IX can be assayed if the patient is thought to have hemophilia A or B, respectively. Deep-seated hemorrhages into joints or tissue spaces after apparent minor trauma and a family history of bleeding disorders may indicate hereditary hemophilia.

      The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is the rate at which red blood cells settle in a column of blood in one hour. It is a nonspecific indicator of inflammatory disease that is also increased in anemia.

      The Coombs, or antiglobulin, test (AGT) is used to test red blood cells for compatibility when doing a cross match between donor red blood cells and recipient serum. The AGT test detects antibodies that would cause life-threatening immune destruction during the transfusion of red blood cells. It also is used to detect antibodies to red blood cells in hemolytic disease of the newborn and drug-induced hemolytic anemias.

      Examining the urine is one of the oldest forms of diagnostic testing, extending back to the days of Hippocrates. Physicians observed the urine (uroscopy) to diagnose all forms of illness because direct examination of a patient, or at least disrobing the patient, was socially unacceptable (see above Historical aspects (diagnosis)).

       urinalysis is the most commonly performed test in the physician's office. It consists of (1) a gross examination, in which the colour, turbidity, and specific gravity of the urine are assessed, (2) the use of a dipstick (a plastic strip containing reagent pads) to test for bilirubin, blood, glucose, ketones, leukocyte esterase, nitrite, pH, protein, and urobilinogen, and (3) a microscopic (microscope) examination of a centrifuged specimen to detect red or white blood cells, casts, crystals, and bacteria. The urine is collected using a “clean-catch” technique to eliminate contamination with bacteria from skin or vaginal secretions.

      Dipstick tests are available that contain from 2 to 10 different tests. The test for glucose, which likely indicates diabetes, and the test for protein, which indicates kidney disease, tumours of the urinary tract, or hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, are two of the most important assays available.

      The microscopic examination is the most valuable urinalysis test. It will show a variety of cells that are normally shed from the urinary tract. Usually up to five white blood cells per high-power field (HPF) are present; more than 10 white blood cells per HPF indicates a urinary tract infection. Red blood cells in the urine sediment can be indicative of urinary tract inflammation and can also be a sign of a malignant tumour of the kidney, bladder, or urinary tract. More than two red blood cells per HPF is abnormal, although in women this is often due to vaginal contamination from menstruation. The identification of red blood cells in the urine (hematuria) always demands follow-up to determine the cause and to rule out the presence of a neoplasm (tumour). Cylindrically shaped urinary casts, shed from the kidney's tubules, consist of protein mixed with cells or other materials and may indicate renal disease if present in large numbers. Various crystals also are found in the urinary sediment, but these are generally of little clinical significance. Occasionally, the presence of specific crystals may help confirm a diagnosis; for example, uric acid crystals in the urine may be associated with gout.

      The tests most commonly performed on feces are the fecal occult blood test (FOBT), stool cultures, and the examination for parasites. The fecal occult blood test is a low-cost method for detecting bleeding, which may be the first sign of carcinoma of the colon or rectum. Although the false-positive rate for this test is low, the false-negative rate is high. It is more likely to detect lesions in the right (ascending) colon because they bleed more than those in the left (descending) colon. Routine surveillance for colorectal cancer depends on periodic fecal occult blood testing combined with direct visualization of the lower colon with a sigmoidoscope (see below).

      Individuals who are at increased risk for colon cancer and should be screened regularly are identified by any of the following criteria: age greater than 50 years, previous colorectal cancer or adenoma, family history of colon cancer or polyps in a first-degree relative or another genetic predisposition (e.g., cancer family syndrome), history of ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease, or personal or family history of genital or breast cancer.

      Stool cultures are obtained when diarrhea is severe and particular bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, or Giardia are suspected. If a parasitic infection is suspected, the stool is examined under the microscope for the eggs or cysts of parasites such as pinworms (Enterobius vermicularis) or roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides).

      Examination of the cerebrospinal fluid, obtained by lumbar puncture (i.e., a needle inserted into the lower back), is performed if meningitis or hemorrhage into the central nervous system (nervous system, human) (subarachnoid hemorrhage) is suspected. The fluid is normally crystal clear and colourless. It will contain blood if subarachnoid hemorrhage has occurred.

      Tests give clues to various disease processes. Viral meningitis can be differentiated from bacterial meningitis by the type of white blood cells identified, although a bacterial culture is the definitive test. The glucose value will usually be normal in patients with viral meningitis but low in those with bacterial and fungal meningitis. The protein level is increased in individuals with meningitis and tumour. The pressure of the fluid within the spinal canal is measured after the needle is inserted. The pressure is elevated in the presence of infection and tumour.

Gastric fluid
      By passing a tube through the nose and into the stomach, gastric fluid can be obtained from the stomach for examination. The most common reason for this test is to look for blood in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Gastric fluid also can be cultured to test for tuberculosis if an adequate sputum sample cannot be obtained for culture.

      More than 10 percent of couples in the United States have difficulty establishing a pregnancy. In addition to obtaining a complete history, performing a physical examination of both partners, and verifying that ovulation does occur in the woman, the physician will perform a semen analysis. Normal semen contains more than 60 million sperm per millilitre. More than 60 percent of the sperm are motile two hours after ejaculation, and 80 to 90 percent will have normal form and structure. Possible causes of infertility are a low sperm count, low motility, or a low percentage of normal forms.

Miscellaneous tests

Immunologic (immunology) procedures
      Immunologic blood tests demonstrate abnormalities of the immune system. Immunity to disease depends on the body's ability to produce antibodies (immunoglobulins) when challenged by foreign substances (antigens). Antibodies bind to and help eliminate antigens from the body. The inability of the body to produce certain classes of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE) can lead to disease. Complexes formed by the antigen-antibody reaction can be deposited in almost any tissue and can lead to malfunction of that organ. Immunofluorescence assays to detect antinuclear antibodies (antibodies that will bind to antigens within the nucleus) can be used to diagnose systemic lupus erythematosus. Assays to detect specific IgG and IgM complexes known as rheumatoid factors can help confirm the diagnosis of certain conditions, including Sjögren syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, and chronic hepatitis.

      The inability of the body to develop antibodies to invading bacteria may result from infection with HIV, which invades white blood cells—primarily monocytes, macrophages, and helper T lymphocytes. Helper T cells are a subgroup of T lymphocytes that are the primary regulators of the immune response and proliferate in response to antigenic stimulation. Testing for HIV is performed with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the western immunoblotting antibody test (western blot).

      The glucose tolerance test is used to confirm or exclude the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus when a fasting blood glucose test result is not definitive (i.e., greater than the upper range of the normal value, 115 milligrams per decilitre [mg/dl; 6.4 mmol/l], but less than the diagnostic level for diabetes, 140 mg/dl [7.8 mmol/l]). Even if a blood glucose test is obtained after fasting 10 to 12 hours and the level is above 140 mg/dl, it is important to confirm the result with a second determination to rule out other factors that may have given a one-time abnormal test result.

      The oral glucose tolerance test measures the response of the body to a challenge load (an amount calculated to evoke a response) of glucose. It most often is used during pregnancy to detect early glucose intolerance that could pose a significant risk to the infant. After a fasting blood glucose test result is obtained, 75 grams of glucose (100 grams if the patient is pregnant) is administered and blood samples are taken every 30 minutes for two hours. In patients with diabetes, the blood glucose value will rise to a higher level and remain higher longer than in individuals who do not have diabetes.

      A simpler but less reliable screening test is the two-hour postprandial blood glucose test performed two hours after intake of a standard glucose solution or a meal containing 100 grams of carbohydrates. A plasma glucose level above 140 mg/dl indicates the need for a glucose tolerance test.

      Malabsorption of nutrients can result from surgical alterations or physiological disturbances of the gastrointestinal tract: removal of a significant portion of the bowel can cause the malabsorption condition short-bowel syndrome, a diffuse mucosal disease such as sprue can interfere with absorption, and diseases of the liver or pancreas may prevent digestive enzymes from reaching the intestines. Bacterial overgrowth in the intestines can interfere with glucose absorption, and the stomach's failure to produce intrinsic factor will prevent the absorption of vitamin B12 (cobalamin), which leads to pernicious anemia.

      Persons who have a low serum vitamin B12 level and who are suspected of having pernicious anemia usually are required to undergo the Schilling test. Radioactive vitamin B12 is administered orally, and the amount excreted in the urine over the next 24 hours is measured. Malabsorption is confirmed if less than eight percent of the vitamin B12 is excreted in the urine.

      Steatorrhea is the excretion of an excessive amount of fat in the stool, which is diagnostic of fat malabsorption when the amount of fat in the diet is normal. Stool specimens are collected for three days following two days of a diet containing 100 grams of fat per day. The excretion of more than six grams of fat daily indicates fat malabsorption, which may occur in persons with pancreatic disease, in those with diffuse mucosal disease, and in those who have undergone massive small-bowel resection.

      A five-carbon sugar, D-xylose, is absorbed in the duodenum and proximal jejunum. It is not metabolized and is excreted unchanged in the urine. The D-xylose absorption test measures the absorption ability of the jejunum. Lowered excretion indicates diminished intestinal absorption usually caused by a decreased absorptive surface, infiltrative intestinal disease, or bacterial overgrowth.

      Toxicology is the study of poisons—their action, detection, and the treatment of conditions they produce. Many substances are toxic only at high concentrations. Lithium, for example, is used to treat manic-depressive disorder but can be toxic at high levels. Another example is acetaminophen, which is valuable in controlling fever and discomfort but is toxic in large doses.

      The concentration of an element in the blood is the usual measure of toxicity. The therapeutic blood range is the concentration of the drug that provides therapeutic benefit, whereas the toxic blood range is the concentration at which toxic manifestations are likely.

      Some substances such as insecticides are toxic to one individual and not to another. Many environmental substances as well as some encountered in the workplace are toxic in high doses; these include organic solvents, heavy metals, mineral dusts, dyes, and cigarette smoke. Acceptable exposure levels are controlled by government standards.

      The nervous system (nervous system, human) is most sensitive to toxicological damage. Common toxins that cause damage to peripheral nerves are the six-carbon solvents, such as n-hexane, in glues or solvents and organophosphorus compounds. Carbon disulfide, used in the production of rayon fibres and cellophane, is a potent neurotoxin. Because no specific treatment is available for most of these toxic manifestations, preventing overexposure is important.

      The diagnostic evaluation of a genetic disorder (congenital disorder) begins with a medical history, a physical examination, and the construction of a family pedigree documenting the diseases and genetic disorders (genetic disease, human) present in the past three generations. This pedigree aids in determining if the problem is sex-linked, dominant, recessive, or not likely to be genetic.

      Chemical, radiological, histopathologic, and electrodiagnostic procedures can diagnose basic defects in patients suspected of genetic disease. These include chromosome karyotyping (in which chromosomes are arranged according to a standard classification scheme), enzyme or hormone assays, amino acid chromatography of blood and urine, gene and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) probes, blood and Rh typing, immunoglobulin determination, electrodiagnostics, and hemoglobin electrophoresis.

      As a result of genetic mutation, a genetic disorder can occur in a child with parents who are not affected by this disorder. This mutation can occur when the egg or sperm form (germinal mutation), or it can occur later following conception, when chromosomes from the egg and sperm combine. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be stimulated by such environmental factors as radiation or carcinogenic (cancer-causing) agents. Mutations occur with increasing frequency as people age. In men this may result from errors that occur throughout a lifetime as DNA replicates to produce sperm. In women nondisjunction of chromosomes becomes more common later in life, increasing the risk of aneuploidy (too many or too few chromosomes). Long-term exposure to ambient ionizing radiation may cause genetic mutations in either gender.

      Cytogenetics is the microscopic study of chromosomes and the transmission of genetic material from parent to offspring. Humans have 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes plus a pair of sex chromosomes, with one chromosome of each of the 23 pairs being inherited from each parent. There are 50,000 to 100,000 genes arranged along the chromosomes in linear order, each having a precise location, or locus. The international Human Genome Project, completed in 2003, mapped the location of all human genes.

      Two broad classes of genes have been implicated in the development of cancer—oncogenes, which promote tumour growth, and tumour-suppressor genes. Both types of cancer-related genes, usually more than one variation of each type, are involved in a particular cancer, such as that of the colon or breast.

Prenatal diagnosis
      Prenatal screening is performed if there is a family history of inherited disease, the mother is at an advanced age, a previous child had a chromosomal abnormality, or there is an ethnic indication of risk (Ashkenazic Jews and French Canadians are at increased risk for Tay-Sachs disease; blacks, Arabs, Turks, and others for sickle-cell anemia; and those of Mediterranean descent for thalassemia [hereditary anemia]). Parents can be tested before or after conception to determine whether they are carriers.

      The most common screening test is an assay of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) in the maternal serum. Elevated levels are associated with neural tube defects in the fetus such as spina bifida (defective closure of the spine) and anencephaly (absence of brain tissue). When alpha-fetoprotein levels are elevated, a more specific diagnosis is attempted using ultrasonography and amniocentesis to analyze the amniotic fluid for the presence of alpha-fetoprotein and acetylcholinesterase. Fetal cells contained in the amniotic fluid also can be cultured and the karyotype (chromosome morphology) determined to identify chromosomal abnormality. Cells for chromosome analysis also can be obtained by chorionic villus sampling, the direct needle aspiration of cells from the chorionic villus (future placenta). (See pregnancy: Human reproduction from conception to birth: The normal events of pregnancy: Prenatal care and testing (pregnancy).)

Chromosomal analysis
      To obtain a person's karyotype, laboratory technicians grow human cells in tissue culture media. After being stained and sorted, the chromosomes are counted and displayed. The cells are obtained from the blood, skin, or bone marrow or by amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, as noted above. The standard karyotype shown in the figure has approximately 400 visible bands, and each band contains up to several hundred genes.

      When a chromosomal aberration (chromosomal disorder) is identified, it allows for a more accurate prediction of the risk of its recurrence in future offspring. Karyotyping can be used not only to diagnose aneuploidy, which is responsible for Down, Turner's, and Klinefelter's syndromes, but also to identify the chromosomal aberrations associated with solid tumours (tumour) such as Wilms' tumour, meningioma, neuroblastoma, retinoblastoma, renal-cell carcinoma, small-cell lung cancer, and certain leukemias and lymphomas.

DNA probes
      Karyotyping requires a great deal of time and effort and may not always provide conclusive information. It is most useful in identifying very large defects involving hundreds or even thousands of genes.

      Newer techniques such as fluorescent in situ hybridization (fluorescence in situ hybridization) (FISH) have much higher rates of sensitivity and specificity. FISH also provides results more quickly because no cell culture is required. This technique can detect smaller genetic deletions involving one to five genes. It is also useful in detecting moderate-sized deletions such as those causing Prader-Willi syndrome, which is characterized by a rounded face, low forehead, and mental retardation.

      The analysis of individual genes has been greatly enhanced by the development of recombinant DNA (recombinant DNA technology) technology. Small DNA fragments can be isolated, and unlimited amounts of cloned material can be produced. Once cloned, the various genes and gene products can be used to study gene function in healthy individuals and those with disease. Recombinant DNA methods can detect any change in DNA, down to a one-base-pair change out of the three billion base pairs in the genome. DNA probes are labeled with radioactive isotopes or fluorescent dyes and used to identify persons who are carriers for autosomal recessive conditions. Disorders that can be detected using this technique include hemophilia A, polycystic kidney disease, sickle-cell disease, Huntington's chorea, cystic fibrosis, and hemochromatosis.

      Biochemical tests primarily detect enzymatic defects such as phenylketonuria, porphyria, and glycogen-storage disease. Although testing of newborns for all these abnormalities is possible, it is not cost-effective, because some are quite rare. Screening requirements for these disorders vary from state to state and depend on whether the disease is sufficiently common, has severe consequences, and can be treated or prevented if diagnosed early and whether the test can be applied to the entire population at risk.

Instrumental screening

       colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in the United States. This disease is preventable if adenomatous polyps, protruding growths from the mucosal surface that can progress to cancer, are identified and removed. Although most adenomatous polyps are not cancerous, this possibility can only be discounted by histologic examination, which requires their removal. Fifty percent of all lesions occur in the rectum and sigmoid colon; they can be detected and removed using a 60-centimetre flexible sigmoidoscope. This instrument consists of a bundle of optical fibres that carry the visual image; it can be bent at the tip in four directions using controls at the base so that it can be maneuvered through the contorted sigmoid colon. The scope also contains a light source at the tip for illuminating the bowel, as well as separate passageways for instilling air and water, for suctioning fluid, and for inserting such instruments as biopsy forceps and snares. This scope has a smaller diameter than do rigid scopes and causes the patient less discomfort because of its flexibility. The operator can see the organ directly through a magnifying eyepiece or indirectly by a video monitor. The latter allows videotaping of suspicious lesions. Both rigid and flexible scopes can be fitted with a still camera.

      The flexible fibre-optic sigmoidoscope comes in lengths of 35 and 60 centimetres. When fully inserted, the 60-centimetre scope can reach to the mid-descending colon and is the more frequently used scope. The colonoscope is a similar flexible fibre-optic scope that is longer and can reach the cecum, thus allowing evaluation of the entire colon. Its use requires that the patient be sedated because its passage through the entire colon is more uncomfortable.

      A rigid, 25-centimetre sigmoidoscope is less expensive and allows direct visualization of the bowel, but it is less popular because of the greater discomfort its rigidity causes. The proctoscope and anoscope, shorter rigid instruments used to visualize the lower rectum and anus, are used to diagnose and treat hemorrhoids and other lesions in the anorectal area.

      The incidence of colon cancer increases sharply after the age of 50. Asymptomatic individuals should have a sigmoidoscopy at age 50 and, if the result is negative, the test should be repeated every three to five years. Symptomatic persons and those with a family history of colon cancer should start regular examinations at age 40 or younger.

Esophagogastroduodenoscopy
      As the lengthy name implies, esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) is an endoscopic examination in which a scope is passed through the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum for a visual examination. This flexible fibre-optic scope contains the same channels as the flexible fibre-optic sigmoidoscope described above and usually has a camera attached to record visually recognizable abnormalities.

      This procedure is indicated when symptoms of peptic (peptic ulcer) ulcer disease persist despite an adequate trial of treatment or when there is upper gastrointestinal bleeding or a suspicion of upper gastrointestinal cancer. It is also indicated if there is an esophageal stricture or obstruction or persistent vomiting of unknown cause. Esophageal strictures, if benign, can be successfully dilated, and upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be controlled using electrocoagulation. If the bleeding is from esophageal varices, they can be injected with a sclerosing (hardening) agent. A tissue sample can be removed and examined (a biopsy) from any suspicious lesion of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum to make the specific tissue diagnosis that is necessary when deciding on the most appropriate therapy.

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatoscopy
      The flexible fibre-optic scope used in endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is similar to the scopes described above. It is passed through the stomach into the duodenum to visualize the ampulla of Vater, the opening of the common bile duct into the duodenum. It enables injection of a radiopaque dye into the common bile duct to permit radiographic visualization of the common bile duct and the pancreatic duct. This test is used to evaluate the patient with jaundice whose biliary tract is suspected to be obstructed because of a gallstone or tumour. It is also used to evaluate persistent pancreatitis of unknown cause. If there is stricture of the ampulla or another area in the common bile duct, a sphincterotomy (incision of the sphincter) or balloon dilatation can be used to enlarge the opening.

laparoscopy and laparoscopic surgery
      Fibre-optic technology has greatly expanded the procedures that can be performed by laparoscopy. By using local anesthesia and mild sedation, the abdominal wall can be punctured and the laparoscope inserted to examine the contents of the abdomen, obviating the need for major surgery and general anesthesia. Instruments are inserted through multiple ports in the abdomen, and surgeons can visualize abdominal organs without making an open incision into the abdomen. Valuable diagnostic information can be obtained by examining a biopsy specimen of the liver or abdominal lesions. Surgeons also can perform a variety of procedures with this method, such as removing the gallbladder and ligating the fallopian tubes (laparoscopic surgery). In orthopedic surgery the same technique is called arthroscopy, and it simplifies the treatment of many disorders that previously required a large surgical incision and a lengthy period of rehabilitation.

Nasopharyngolarygoscopy
      The use of fibre-optic nasopharyngolaryngoscopes permits visualization of structures inside the nasal passages such as the sinus openings, larynx, and vocal cords. A more thorough examination can be performed than is possible using indirect visualization with a mirror.

      The colposcope is a lighted magnifying scope used to directly visualize the vulva, vagina, and cervix and to evaluate suspicious areas. Colposcopy is used when the Papanicolaou test (or Pap smear; cervicovaginal cytology) suggests the possibility of cancer of the uterine cervix; it helps to detect precancerous abnormalities and identifies in which areas a biopsy should be performed for a definitive diagnosis to be made.

Graphing and miscellaneous instrumental screening

      The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a record of electrical activity of the brain recorded by 8 to 16 pairs of electrodes attached to the scalp. It is useful in the diagnosis of epilepsy, brain tumours, and sleep disorders and in the assessment of patients with suspected brain death. The latter use is particularly important if organs are to be saved for transplantation as soon as brain death is confirmed. Sleep deprivation and other provocative tests, including photic stimulation and hyperventilation, can be used to accentuate borderline findings. The EEG is of no use in diagnosing psychiatric illness.

      The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a graphic recording of the electrical activity of the heart detected at the body surface and amplified. It was invented by the Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven (Einthoven, Willem) (1860–1927) and for many years was called an EKG after the German Elektrokardiogramm. Electrodes to record the electrical activity of the heart are placed at 10 different locations, one on each of the four limbs and six at different locations on the anterior chest wall. Twelve different leads, or electrical pictures, are generated, each having its own normal configuration.

      The ECG is of greatest use in diagnosing cardiac arrhythmias (arrhythmia), acute and prior myocardial infarctions, pericardial disease, cardiac enlargement (atrial and ventricular), and various electrolyte disturbances and drug effects. The exercise electrocardiogram, or ECG stress test, is used to assess the ability of the coronary arteries to deliver oxygen while the heart is undergoing strain imposed by a standardized exercise protocol. If the blood supply to the heart is jeopardized during exercise, the inadequate oxygenation of the heart muscle is recorded by typical changes in the electrocardiogram that indicate coronary artery disease (narrowing of the coronary arteries). A normal ECG, however, does not exclude significant coronary artery disease and is not predictive of disease course.

      The echocardiogram is a noninvasive technique used to record the structure of the heart by using ultrahigh-frequency sound waves. A transducer placed on the chest wall emits a short burst of ultrasound waves and then measures the reflection, or echo of the sound as it bounces back from such cardiac structures as valves and the muscle wall. It is used to evaluate chamber size, wall thickness, wall motion, valve structure, and valve motion. It is the method of choice for detecting infection of the valves (endocarditis), intracardiac tumours, and pericardial fluid. Mitral valve prolapse is easily visualized by this noninvasive technique.

Myocardial perfusion imaging
      Myocardial perfusion imaging uses radioactive thallium to detect myocardial ischemia, myocardial infarction, and coronary artery disease. Injected intravenously, radioactive thallium is rapidly absorbed by the myocardium and is normally distributed evenly in heart muscle. Deficient blood flow to a portion of the myocardium is readily detectable by decreased uptake in that area. Evidence of recent and not-so-recent myocardial infarcts will be visible, but most persons with coronary artery disease (coronary heart disease) who have not had a previous infarction will have normal perfusion patterns when they are at rest. In such a patient a thallium stress test is performed in which the substance is injected while the individual is exercising so that areas of transient ischemia can be identified and the patient treated to prevent myocardial infarction. An alternative means of stressing the heart that can provide information comparable with exercise is the injection of adenosine, a vasodilator. This test is used to diagnose coronary artery disease when the resting electrocardiogram is abnormal or the exercise electrocardiogram is equivocal.

      Another method for evaluating the heart without the stress of exercise involves the intravenous injection of the drug dobutamine, while monitoring the effects using echocardiography. By using dobutamine echocardiography, the heart condition of frail patients and those who have heart disease or physical limitations that preclude exercise can be evaluated. Dobutamine induces the same changes in the heart that would occur during a standard exercise test. Two-dimensional echocardiography shows areas of the left ventricle that function abnormally. This technique uses no X-ray or radioactive material and is useful in diagnosing heart disease during pregnancy (see above Echocardiography).

      A more specific measurement of coronary artery narrowing is carried out by placing a catheter into the heart and injecting a radiopaque dye through the catheter, which allows the cardiac chambers and coronary arteries to be directly visualized. This test is more expensive and more hazardous than the noninvasive procedures and is usually performed after the others to quantify the severity of disease present and to establish whether the person is a candidate for surgical intervention with balloon angioplasty or coronary bypass surgery. It is also used to evaluate patients with suspected valvular disease and those with angina who do not respond to treatment.

      Electromyography (EMG), the graphing and study of the electrical characteristics of muscles (muscle disease), is used to differentiate disease of the muscles from disease of the peripheral nerves. A needle electrode is inserted into the muscle, and the electrical activity of the muscle is measured. Resting muscle is normally electrically silent. The electrical potential is measured with the muscle at rest and during contraction. The response to electrical stimulation allows the physician to determine whether muscle weakness is the result of a disease in the muscle, such as a myositis (inflammation of the muscle), or a disease of nerves leading to muscle (neuropathy), such as Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Surgical examination

      A biopsy is the removal of tissue for microscopic examination to establish a precise diagnosis. Tissue can be obtained from any organ by excision, incision, removal by a needle, or scraping. The tissue is then fixed in ethanol, formalin, or other suitable fixative, infiltrated with paraffin, and sectioned into very thin slices, which are placed on glass slides. The tissue is deparaffinized and stained to define the cellular characteristics. This allows the surgical pathologist to examine the tissue with a microscope and render a precise diagnosis. During surgery, tissue samples can be immediately frozen, and slices made with a microtome can be placed on a glass slide and rapidly stained. The surgeon is then given a “frozen section” report within minutes.

      An excisional biopsy is the total removal of the lesion to be examined and is most often used to diagnose skin lesions. The major advantage of excisional biopsy is that it provides the pathologist with the entire lesion and minimizes the chance that a cancer in part of the lesion would be missed.

      An incisional biopsy involves the removal of only a portion of the lesion for pathological examination and is used when the size or location of the tumour prohibits its complete excision. This technique also is used when a needle biopsy does not provide adequate information for a diagnosis to be made.

      A needle biopsy is the simplest and least disruptive way to obtain tissue for pathological examination. This procedure can be performed using either a large cutting needle to obtain a “core” of tissue or a small-gauge needle. The latter technique, termed fine-needle aspiration biopsy, is accomplished by inserting the needle into the area of interest and applying suction to draw the tissue into the needle. A needle biopsy is often used to obtain specimens from breast masses. It is less expensive and involves less morbidity than does an open biopsy. The main disadvantages include the missing of deep lesions with the needle and the need for a specially trained pathologist to interpret the specimen accurately. As noted above, often more cells are needed for a precise diagnosis than are provided by a fine-needle biopsy.

      Another form of aspiration biopsy is the endometrial biopsy, in which the specimen is obtained by applying suction through a curette inserted into the uterus to obtain cells from the internal lining.

      Abrasion is a method by which cells are obtained from the surface of lesions using a brush or spatula. Cells from epithelial-lined body cavities and surfaces such as the vagina, bronchus, and stomach are examined using the Papanicolaou technique. The Papanicolaou test or smear, commonly called the Pap smear, is the examination of cervical cells that have been fixed and stained on a slide according to the technique developed by the Greek physician George Nicolas Papanicolaou. This technique also can be applied to cells obtained from other surfaces.

Exploratory surgery
      When a specific diagnosis is not possible using noninvasive or simple biopsy techniques, it may be necessary to surgically explore the area in question. If the lesion is in the abdomen, this involves a laparotomy or incision into the abdomen to observe the lesion. If possible a biopsy sample is removed. It may be apparent that the lesion is inoperable because of its location or attachment to vital structures from which it cannot be separated.

Radiological screening
      Named after Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, the roentgenogram is the photograph of internal structures made by passing X rays (X-ray) through the body to produce a shadow image on specially sensitized film. The value of a roentgenogram is considerably enhanced by the use of contrast material, such as barium, to make structures visible on the film that would otherwise not appear. Perhaps the most common procedure employs a barium enema, administered to the patient before the X-ray examination, which allows identification of polyps as small as one centimetre in diameter when air is inserted after the barium (a double-contrast barium enema). This screening is effective if precancerous polyps are identified at an early stage.

Chest (thorax) film
      One of the most common screening roentgenograms is the chest film, taken to look for such infections as tuberculosis and conditions like heart disease and cancer. Treatment of tuberculosis detected by a roentgenogram can prevent more extensive infection, but unfortunately this technique is of little value in screening for lung cancer because the stage at which the disease is detectable by this method is too far advanced for treatment to be of value.

      New film screening techniques make it possible to detect lesions in the breast (mammary gland) using low doses of radiation. Mammography is never a substitute for a clinical breast examination by a physician, because not all lesions are detectable by X-ray examination; however, lesions often can be detected by mammography before they are palpable in the breast. The primary purpose for mammography is the detection of cancer at the earliest, treatable stage, before the lesion is palpable.

      Mammography is most useful in older women whose breast tissue is less dense than that of younger women. Mammography is never a substitute for a biopsy if a suspicious mass is palpated. Some groups recommend an initial mammogram at 35 to 40 years of age to serve as a baseline for subsequent screening. The American Cancer Society recommends a mammogram every one to two years from age 40 to 49 and yearly thereafter. However, women at increased risk for breast cancer should consider initiating annual mammographic screening before the age of 40. The risk of breast cancer is doubled or trebled in women who have a sister with breast cancer or whose mother was diagnosed with breast cancer before the age of 40.

Computerized body scanning

Computed tomography (computerized axial tomography)
      The introduction of computed tomography (CT scan) in 1972 was a major advance in visualizing almost all parts of the body. Particularly useful in diagnosing tumours and other space-occupying lesions, it uses a tiny X-ray beam that traverses the body in an axial plane. Detectors record the strength of the exiting X rays; this information is then processed by a computer and a cross-sectional image of the body produced.

      CT is the preferred examination for evaluating stroke, particularly subarachnoid hemorrhage, as well as abdominal tumours and abscesses.

      Ultrasonography, or ultrasound imaging, uses pulsed or continuous high-frequency sound waves to image internal structures by recording the differing reflection signals. The sonographic image is not as precise as images obtained through computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging, but it is used in many procedures because it is quick and relatively inexpensive and has no known biological hazards when used within the diagnostic range.

      This method is used to diagnose gallstones, heart defects, and tumours. It is used to guide certain procedures such as needle biopsies and the introduction of tubes for drainage. It has become an essential part of obstetric (obstetrics and gynecology) and prenatal assessment, although controversy exists as to its routine use in obstetric care. Ultrasonography plays an integral role in the diagnosis and management of fetal abnormalities; it is also used to guide intrauterine corrective surgery.

      Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) relies on the response of magnetic fields to short bursts of radio-frequency waves to produce computer images that provide structural and biochemical information about tissue. The process uses radio waves and is thus much safer than imaging using X rays or gamma rays. This totally noninvasive but very expensive procedure is particularly useful in detecting cerebral edema, abnormalities of the spine, and early-stage cancer. In examining the brain, spinal cord, urinary bladder, pelvic organs, and cancellous bone, MRI is the superior imaging technique. Because patients must lie quietly inside a narrow tube, MRI may raise anxiety levels in the patients, especially those with claustrophobia. Another disadvantage of MRI is that it has a longer scanning time than CT, which makes it more sensitive to motion artifacts and thus of less value in scanning the chest or abdomen. Because of the strong magnetic field, MRI cannot be used if a pacemaker is present or if metal is present in critical areas such as the eye or brain.

      MRI has largely supplanted arthrography, the injection of dye into a joint to visualize cartilage or ligament damage to the knee or shoulder, and myelography, the injection of dye into the spinal canal to visualize spinal cord or intervertebral disk abnormalities.

       multiple sclerosis, a disease with multiple foci of demyelination (loss of the myelin sheath of a nerve) in the brain, sometimes can be diagnosed using MRI. However, because the test is not sufficiently sensitive, a normal MRI cannot exclude the diagnosis.

      Magnetic resonance angiography, a unique form of MRI technology, can be used to produce an image of flowing blood. This permits the visualization of arteries and veins without the need for needles, catheters, or contrast agents.

      CT and MRI provide two-dimensional views of cross sections of the body, and these images must be viewed in sequence by the radiologist. Computer technology now makes it possible to construct (holography) holograms that provide three-dimensional images from digital data obtained by conventional CT or MRI scanners. These holograms can be useful in locating lesions more precisely and in mapping the exact location of coronary arteries when planning bypass surgery or angioplasty.

      Digital subtraction angiography (DSA), an electronic technique for imaging blood vessels (blood vessel), is useful in diagnosing arterial occlusion, including carotid artery stenosis and pulmonary artery thrombosis, and in detecting renal vascular disease. After contrast material is injected into an artery or vein, a physician produces fluoroscopic images. Using these digitized images, a computer subtracts the image made with contrast material from a postinjection image made without contrast material, producing an image that allows the dye in the arteries to be seen more clearly. In this manner, the images arising from soft tissues, bones, and gas are the same in the initial and subsequent image and are thereby eliminated by the subtraction process. The remaining images of blood vessels containing the contrast material are thus more prominent.

      Positron emission tomography (PET) is a highly sensitive technique for diagnosing stroke and other neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis and epilepsy. Positron-emitting radionuclides with short half-lives are used to detect cerebral blood flow, oxygen utilization, and glucose metabolism, providing both qualitative and quantitative information regarding metabolism and blood flow, such as in the heart.

Psychological tests (psychological testing)
      As with all medical testing, psychological testing is used as an aid in diagnosis, but no test stands alone. Each result must be combined with information gathered from the history, clinical evaluation, and other tests to be of greatest value. Testing, usually by a trained psychologist, is used to differentiate psychiatric from organic problems, to measure intelligence, to detect or confirm depression or other emotional abnormalities, and to evaluate personality or cognitive functioning. Some of the most commonly used tests are listed below.
● The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a questionnaire designed for people older than 16 years of age. The 567 true-false statements require a trained psychologist to interpret the 14 personality scales and to determine the clinical significance of the findings. The test is used to assess psychopathologic status and personality functioning.
● The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) is the most widely used screening test for impairment of cognitive function. Developed by Marshal F. Folstein and colleagues, this brief and easy-to-administer test is used to identify persons with dementia.
● Personality functioning and psychopathologic status can be assessed with the 10 inkblot cards of the Rorschach Test. The associations these ambiguous images provoke require expert interpretation; results provide useful information on emotional aberrations.
● The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) uses 20 pictures of people in different situations to which the viewer ascribes meaning, which reflects areas of anxiety, personal conflict, and interpersonal relationships.
● Information about a person's concerns and emotional conflicts can be gathered by administering the draw-a-person test and the sentence-completion test.
● The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), a 21-item self-administered test, measures subjective experiences and psychological symptoms associated with depression.
● The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, which can be self-administered or given by a trained interviewer, employs 20 items to measure the severity of depression.

Formulating a diagnosis
      The process of formulating a diagnosis is called clinical decision making. The clinician uses the information gathered from the history and physical examination to develop a list of possible causes of the disorder, called the differential diagnosis. The clinician then decides what tests to order to help refine the list or identify the specific disease responsible for the patient's complaints. During this process, some possible diseases (hypotheses) will be discarded and new ones added as tests either confirm or deny the possibility that a given disease is present. The list is refined until the physician feels justified in moving forward to treatment. Even after treatment is begun, the list of possible diagnoses may be revised further if the patient does not progress as expected.

      The hypotheses are ranked with the most likely disease placed first. Sometimes, however, a less likely disease is addressed first because it is more life-threatening and could lead to serious consequences if not treated promptly. Following this course, the possibility of a heart attack would be eliminated first in a patient experiencing chest pain and appendicitis would be the first condition to be addressed in a child with abdominal pain, even though another less serious disease is more likely.

      An algorithm is a sequence of alternate steps that can be taken to solve problems—a decision tree. Starting with a chief complaint or key clue, the physician moves along this decision tree, directed one of two ways by each new piece of information, and eliminates diagnoses. If the wrong path is taken, the physician returns to a previous branching point and follows the other path. Computers can be used to assist in making the diagnosis; however, they lack the intuition of an experienced physician and the nonverbal diagnostic clues obtained during the interview.

      Diagnostic tests rarely establish the presence of a disease without doubt. The greater the sensitivity and the specificity of the test, the more useful it will be. Ordering too many tests poses significant danger, not only because of low cost-effectiveness but also because a falsely abnormal test result requires a further series of tests to prove or disprove its accuracy. This further testing may involve additional discomfort, risk, and cost to the patient, which is especially unfortunate if the tests need not have been ordered in the first place. It is just as important to know when not to order a test as to know which tests to order (see above Clinical laboratory tests (diagnosis)).

      An important feature of clinical decision making is the ongoing relationship between the physician and patient. The knowledge a physician gains in caring for the patient for a long period of time can provide greater insight into the likelihood of a given disease being present. When the symptoms are caused by emotional factors, the familiar personal physician is more likely to accurately diagnose them than is a physician seeing the patient for the first time. Also, a lengthy and trusting association with a physician will often positively influence the patient's outcome. Thus, sporadic visits to the emergency department of a hospital, where physicians who are unfamiliar with the patient are asked to provide diagnoses and treatment without the benefit of this partnership, are more likely to be inefficient, expensive, and less personally satisfying.

      Early in the course of a disease, decisions must be made with fewer clues to the diagnosis than are likely to be available later. One of the most difficult tasks in medicine is to separate, in the early stages of an illness, the serious and life-threatening diseases from the transient and minor ones. Many illnesses will resolve without a diagnosis ever being reached. Nevertheless, an illness may remain undiagnosed for months or years before new symptoms appear and the disease advances to a stage that permits diagnosis. An example is multiple sclerosis, which can present with nothing more than transient blurred vision and may take years before other more specific symptoms appear.

      Patients often have undifferentiated complaints that can represent an uncommon serious disorder or a common but not very serious disorder. For example, a patient may experience fatigue. Depending on the patient's family history and personal background, the physician may think initially of depression and next of anemia secondary to gastrointestinal bleeding. A variety of less likely disorders will follow. Anemia is easy to rule out with inexpensive hemoglobin and hematocrit tests. These tests should be ordered even if depression is the correct diagnosis because anemia may contribute to the weariness and should be treated as well. Depression can be diagnosed with appropriate questioning, and a physical examination may eliminate many other diagnostic possibilities.

Additional Reading
Lois N. Magner, A History of Medicine, 2nd ed. (2005), covers medical history from its beginnings to modern times. Mark H. Swartz, Textbook of Physical Diagnosis: History and Examination, 5th ed. (2005), an excellent illustrated text, covers the techniques of physical diagnosis. Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, Unmasking the Face: A Guide to Recognizing Emotions from Facial Clues (1975, reprinted 1984), is a classic text in facial expression and emotion that uses composite photographs to show the importance of such areas as the brow, eyes, or mouth. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR, 4th ed. (2000), the standard reference, contains the diagnostic criteria for mental diseases as determined by the American Psychiatric Association. Paul Cutler, Problem Solving in Clinical Medicine: From Data to Diagnosis, 3rd ed. (1998), covers the fundamentals of problem solving and includes many examples. An unusual reference containing technical information not found in standard medical dictionaries is James L. Bennington, Dictionary & Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology (1984). Robert E. Rakel, Textbook of Family Practice, 6th ed. (2001), is the standard textbook for family physicians covering the breadth of the discipline and emphasizing clinical diagnosis and treatment. A handy pocket reference presented in outline format containing diagnostic essentials for most medical conditions is David C. Dugdale and Mickey S. Eisenberg, Medical Diagnostics (1992). Annually an issue of JAMA, the journal of the American Medical Association, is devoted to recent discoveries in every medical discipline and is an excellent source of up-to-date information on new developments in medicine. Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment (annual) contains concise diagnostic information and treatment for a large number of medical diseases. James B. Wyngaarden, Lloyd J. Smith, Jr., and J. Claude Bennett, Cecil Textbook of Medicine, 23rd ed. (2007), is one of the best standard textbooks of medicine, compiled by leading authorities and containing thorough information on common and rare diseases. Robert Rakel (ed.), Saunders Manual of Medical Practice, 2nd ed. (2000), summarizes a broad range of common conditions encountered by family physicians.Robert Edwin Rakel

* * *


Universalium. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Нужно решить контрольную?

Look at other dictionaries:

  • diagnosis — diagnosis, prognosis should perhaps be called near synonyms; but they can be confused because both are employed in a specific medical sense with clear, sharp implications that are often carried over into their general and extended use. Diagnosis… …   New Dictionary of Synonyms

  • Diagnosis — Di ag*no sis, n.; pl. {Diagnoses}. [NL., fr. Gr. ?, fr. ? to distinguish; dia through, asunder + ? to know. See {Know}.] 1. (Med.) The art or act of recognizing the presence of disease from its signs or symptoms, and deciding as to its character; …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • Diagnosis X — Format Reality Production Running time 44 minutes (60 with commercials) Broadcast Original channel TLC …   Wikipedia

  • diagnosis — (plural diagnosis) sustantivo femenino 1. Área: medicina Identificación de una enfermedad por los síntomas y signos que le son propios: Hacer una diagnosis es uno de los ejercicios prácticos de patología. Sinónimo: diagnóstico …   Diccionario Salamanca de la Lengua Española

  • diagnosis — [dī΄əg nō′sis] n. pl. diagnoses [dī΄əg nō′sēz΄] [ModL < Gr diagnōsis, a distinguishing < diagignōskein, to distinguish: see DIA & GNOSIS] 1. the act or process of discovering or identifying a diseased condition by means of a medical… …   English World dictionary

  • diagnosis — I noun analysis, appreciation of differences, assay, breakdown, careful appreciation, categorization, category, classification, classificatory description, conclusion, critical appraisal, critical scrutiny, critique, designation, differentiation …   Law dictionary

  • diagnosis — 1680s, medical L. application of Gk. diagnosis a discerning, distinguishing, from stem of diagignoskein discern, distinguish, lit. to know thoroughly, from dia apart (see DIA (Cf. dia )) + gignoskein to learn (see GNOSTIC (Cf. gnostic)) …   Etymology dictionary

  • diagnosis — has the plural form diagnoses (pronounced gnoh seez) …   Modern English usage

  • diagnosis — [n] identification of problem, disease analysis, conclusion, examination, interpretation, investigation, opinion, pronouncement, scrutiny, summary; concepts 283,689 …   New thesaurus

  • diagnosis — (Del gr. διάγνωσις, conocimiento). 1. f. Acción y efecto de diagnosticar. 2. Biol. Descripción característica y diferencial abreviada de una especie, género, etc. 3. Med. diagnóstico (ǁ arte o acto de reconocer una enfermedad) …   Diccionario de la lengua española

  • diagnosis — ► NOUN (pl. diagnoses) ▪ the identification of the nature of an illness or other problem by examination of the symptoms. ORIGIN Greek, from diagign skein distinguish, discern …   English terms dictionary

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
… Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”