Weismann, August (Friedrich Leopold)

▪ German biologist

born Jan. 17, 1834, Frankfurt am Main

died Nov. 5, 1914, Freiburg im Breisgau, Ger.

      German biologist and one of the founders of the science of genetics, who is best known for his opposition to the doctrine of the inheritance of acquired traits and for his “germ plasm” theory, the forerunner of DNA theory.

      From early boyhood, when he made expeditions into the surrounding countryside to collect insects and plants, Weismann showed an intense interest in natural history. From 1852 until 1856 he was a student of medicine at the University of Göttingen, after which he briefly held a number of positions: as a chemical assistant in Rostock, as a doctor in the Baden army, and as private physician to Archduke Stephan of Austria. In 1860 he made a brief study visit to Paris, and the next year to Giessen—a stay he later described as being one of the most important in his life.

      In 1860 he first visited Freiburg im Breisgau. Much later, during the celebrations for his 70th birthday, he recalled that “the quiet town nestling among green vines, and the magnificent cathedral . . . made such a charming impression on me that I thought: ‘If only I could live here!' ” So it was to be. In 1863 he joined the University of Freiburg's medical faculty, teaching zoology and comparative anatomy. Soon a zoological institute and museum were built, of which he became the first director. He remained at Freiburg until his retirement in 1912.

      In 1867 he married Marie Dorothea Gruber, whom he had met on a visit to Genoa in 1859. The couple had four daughters and a son.

      During his early years at Freiburg, Weismann occupied himself with zoological research, his most important interests being insect metamorphosis and the sex cells of the Hydrozoa. Even in 1864, however, he was experiencing trouble with his eyesight, making microscope work painful and difficult. After a rest, part of which was spent on leave in Italy, he was able to write in 1874 that he again had the “intense pleasure of observing the minute inhabitants of the fresh waters and the sea,” but he had to abandon microscope work in 1884 and eventually even had to employ someone to read to him. In his later years, therefore, he concentrated on theory.

      Weismann conceived the idea, arising out of his early observations on the Hydrozoa, that the germ cells of animals contain “something essential for the species, something which must be carefully preserved and passed on from one generation to another.” Thus was born the theory of the germ plasm, which he embodied in a book first published in German in 1886 and in English in 1893. Its essence was the notion that all living things contain a special hereditary substance. The general idea is still accepted as valid today, though in place of germ plasm one speaks of chromosomes, genes, and DNA. Weismann, however, lacked nearly all the experimental genetic data that now exists; he filled in the details of his theory with wide-ranging speculation that became at times somewhat mystical.

      Even at that time, when the writings of Gregor Mendel on genetics were lying unnoticed, Weismann saw that, since the hereditary substances from the two parents become mixed together in the fertilized egg, there would be a progressive increase in the amount of hereditary substances unless at some stage there was a compensating reduction. He therefore predicted that there must be a form of nuclear division (mitosis) in which each daughter nucleus receives only half the ancestral germ plasms contained in the original nucleus. The cytological work of other investigators proved the correctness of this prediction and enabled Weismann, together with the others, to propose that the germ plasm was located in what were subsequently called the chromosomes of the egg nucleus.

      Weismann was ever a strong supporter of Darwin (Darwin, Charles) and wrote that the Origin of Species (1859) had excited “delight and enthusiasm in the minds of the younger students.” Unlike Darwin, however, Weismann firmly opposed the idea of inheritance of acquired characters. He put the matter to a practical test in a somewhat naively conceived experiment in which he cut off the tails of mice. With painstaking thoroughness, he observed five generations of progeny of tailless parents, 901 mice in all. Needless to say, they all grew normal tails, and Weismann was able to conclude that mutilations were not inherited.

      In later life Weismann established himself as one of the leading biologists of the world, and his lectures on heredity and evolution became famous. A zealous patriot, he supported the unification of Germany under Bismarck and, on the outbreak of World War I, renounced his British honours and awards. He was very fond of music and was able to play Bach until his 80th year.

Geoffrey H. Beale

Additional Reading

A definitive biography of Weismann is E. Gaupp, August Weismann, sein Leben und sein Werk (1917). Weismann's main publications in English translation are: Studies in the Theory of Descent, 2 vol., with a preface by Charles Darwin (1882, reprinted 1975), a detailed discussion of various zoological themes; Essays upon Heredity and Kindred Biological Problems (1889; 2nd ed., 2 vol., 1891–92); The Germ-Plasm: A Theory of Heredity (1893, reprinted 1974); and The Evolution Theory (1904), a discussion of Darwinism in relation to the germ-plasm theory.

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