nickel processing

Introduction

      preparation of the metal for use in various products.

      Although it is best known for its use in coinage, nickel (Ni) has become much more important for its many industrial applications, which owe their importance to a unique combination of properties. Nickel has a relatively high melting point of 1,453° C (2,647° F) and a face-centred cubic crystal structure, which gives the metal good ductility. Nickel alloys exhibit a high resistance to corrosion in a wide variety of media and have the ability to withstand a range of high and low temperatures. In stainless steels, nickel improves the stability of the protective oxide film that provides corrosion resistance. Its major contribution is in conjunction with chromium in austenitic stainless steels, in which nickel enables the austenitic structure to be retained at room temperature. Modern technology is heavily dependent on these materials, which form a vital part of the chemical, petrochemical, power, and related industries.

History

      Nickel was used industrially as an alloying (alloy) metal almost 2,000 years before it was isolated and recognized as a new element. As early as 200 BC, the Chinese made substantial amounts of a white alloy from zinc and a copper-nickel ore found in Yunnan province. The alloy, known as pai-t'ung, was exported to the Middle East and even to Europe.

      Later, miners in Saxony encountered what appeared to be a copper ore but found that processing it yielded only a useless slaglike material. They considered it bewitched and ascribed it to the devil, “Old Nick.” Thus, it became known as kupfernickel (Old Nick's copper). It was from this ore, studied by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (Cronstedt, Axel Fredrik), that nickel was isolated and recognized as a new element in 1751. In 1776 it was established that pai-t'ung, now called nickel-silver, was composed of copper, nickel, and zinc.

      Demand for nickel-silver was stimulated in England about 1844 by the development of silver electroplating, for which it was found to be the most desirable base. The use of pure nickel as a corrosion-resistant electroplated coating developed a little later; both these uses are still important.

      Small amounts of nickel were produced in Germany in the mid-19th century. More substantial amounts came from Norway, and a little from a mine at Gap, Pa., in the United States. A new source, New Caledonia in the South Pacific, came into production about 1877 and dominated until the development of the copper-nickel ores of the Copper Cliff–Sudbury, Ont., region in Canada, which after 1905 became the world's largest source of nickel. By the late 1970s, production in Soviet Russia had exceeded that in Canada.

Ores

Sulfides (sulfide mineral)

      Canadian ores are sulfides (sulfide) containing nickel, copper, and iron. The most important nickel mineral is pentlandite, (Ni, Fe)₉S₈, followed by pyrrhotite, usually ranging from FeS to Fe₇S₈, in which some of the iron may be replaced by nickel. chalcopyrite, CuFeS₂, is the dominant copper mineral in these ores, with small amounts of another copper mineral, cubanite, CuFe₂S₃. Some gold, silver, and the six platinum-group metals also are present, and their recovery is important. Cobalt, selenium, tellurium, and sulfur may be recovered from the ores as well.

Laterites (laterite)

      Other important classes of ore are the laterites, which are the result of long weathering of peridotite initially containing a small percentage of nickel. Weathering in subtropical climates removes a major portion of the host rock, but the contained nickel dissolves and percolates downward and may reach a concentration sufficiently high to make mining economical. Owing to this method of formation, laterite deposits are found near the surface as a soft, frequently claylike material, with nickel concentrated in strata as a result of weathering. Garnierite, (NiMg)₆Si₄O₁₀(OH)₈, a nickel-magnesium silicate, is the richest in nickel, but nickeliferous limonite, (Fe, Ni)O(OH) · nH₂O, constitutes a major portion of the laterites. The New Caledonian deposits are of the garnierite type, and numerous other laterite deposits are scattered around the world, presenting a wide range of mining, transport, and recovery problems. The nickel content of laterites varies widely: at Le Nickel in New Caledonia, for example, the ore delivered to the smelter in 1900 contained 9 percent nickel; currently it contains 1 to 3 percent.

mining

 With nickel found in two radically different types of ore, it is not surprising that the mining methods differ. Sulfide deposits are usually mined by underground techniques in a manner similar to copper, although some deposits have been mined using open pits in the early stages. The mining of laterites is basically an earth-moving operation, with large shovels, draglines, or front-end loaders extracting the nickel-rich strata and discarding large boulders and waste material. The ore is loaded into trucks at the face, as would be the case in an open pit, and hauled to the smelter.

Extraction and refining

      The extraction of nickel from ore follows much the same route as copper, and indeed, in a number of cases, similar processes and equipment are used. The major differences in equipment are the use of higher-temperature refractories and the increased cooling required to accommodate the higher operating temperatures in nickel production. The specific processes taken depend on whether the ore is a sulfide or a laterite. In the case of sulfides, the reaction of oxygen with iron and sulfur in the ore supplies a portion of the heat required for smelting. Oxide ores, on the other hand, do not produce the same reaction heats, making necessary the use of energy from other sources for smelting.

From sulfide ores

      Sulfide ores are crushed and ground in order to liberate nickel minerals from the waste materials by selective flotation. In this process, the ore is mixed with special reagents and agitated by mechanical and pneumatic devices that produce air bubbles. As these rise through the mixture, the sulfide particles adhere to their surfaces and are collected as a concentrate containing 6 to 12 percent nickel. The waste material, or tailings, is frequently run through a second cleaning step before it is discarded. Because some nickel-bearing sulfides are magnetic, magnetic separators can be used in place of, or in conjunction with, flotation. In cases such as the Sudbury deposit, where the copper content of the ore is almost equal to that of nickel, the concentrate is subjected to a second selective flotation whereby the copper is floated to produce a low-nickel copper concentrate and a separate nickel concentrate, each to be processed in its respective smelting line.

 Nickel concentrates may be leached with sulfuric acid or ammonia, or they may be dried and smelted in flash and bath processes, as is the case with copper. Nickel requires higher smelting temperatures (in the range of 1,350° C [2,460° F]) in order to produce an artificial nickel-iron sulfide known as matte, which contains 25 to 45 percent nickel. In the next step, iron in the matte is converted to an oxide, which combines with a silica flux to form a slag. This is done in a rotating converter of the type used in copper production. The slag is drawn off, leaving a matte of 70 to 75 percent nickel. Because the conversion of nickel sulfide directly to metal would require an extremely high temperature (in excess of 1,600° C [2,910° F]), the removal of sulfur at this stage of the converting process is controlled in order to produce the 70–75 percent nickel matte, which has a lower melting point. On the other hand, the relatively high ratio of sulfur (a major pollutant) to nickel in most nickel concentrates increases the burden of sulfur containment in the smelters.

      Various processes are used to treat nickel matte. One process is the ammonia pressure leach, in which nickel is recovered from solution using hydrogen reduction, and the sulfur is recovered as ammonium sulfate for use as fertilizer. In another, the matte may be roasted to produce high-grade nickel oxides; these are subjected to a pressure leach, and the solution is electro- and carbonyl refined. In electrorefining, the nickel is deposited onto pure nickel cathodes from sulfate or chloride solutions. This is done in electrolytic cells equipped with diaphragm compartments to prevent the passage of impurities from anode to cathode. In carbonyl refining, carbon monoxide is passed through the matte, yielding nickel and iron carbonyls [Ni(CO)₄ and Fe(CO)₅]. Nickel carbonyl is a very toxic and volatile vapour that, after purification, is decomposed on pure nickel pellets to produce nickel shot. Copper, sulfur, and precious metals remain in the residue and are treated separately.

From laterite ores

      Being free of sulfur, laterite nickel deposits do not cause a pollution problem as do the sulfide ores, but they do require substantial energy input, and their mining can have a detrimental effect on the environment (e.g., soil erosion). The range of process options is limited by the nature of the ore. Being oxides, laterites are not amenable to conventional concentration processes, so that large tonnages must be smelted. In addition, they contain large amounts of water (in the range of 35 to 40 percent) as moisture and chemically bound in the form of hydroxides. Drying of moisture and removal of the chemically bound water are therefore major operations. These are carried out in large rotary-kiln furnaces. Dryers 50 metres long and 5.5 metres in diameter are common, while reduction kilns 5 to 6 metres in diameter and more than 100 metres long are required to handle the large tonnages of ore and to provide the necessary retention time.

      Next, it is necessary to reduce the oxide to nickel metal. Electric furnaces rated at 45 to 50 megavolt-amperes and operating at 1,360° to 1,610° C (2,480° to 2,930° F) are standard in modern laterite nickel smelters. The high magnesia content in most laterite ores and the liquidus temperature of the furnace products necessitate these higher smelting temperatures, which in turn make necessary an extensive system of cooling blocks within the refractory lining of the furnace. In some plants, sufficient sulfur is added to produce a furnace matte that can be further processed like matte from a sulfide smelter. However, the majority of laterite smelters produce a crude ferronickel, which, after refining to remove impurities such as silicon, carbon, and phosphorus, is marketed as an alloying agent in steel manufacture.

The metal and its alloys

      Pure nickel possesses a useful combination of properties, including corrosion resistance, good strength, and high ductility, even at extremely low temperatures. It also possesses useful electronic properties and special magnetic properties. Nickel is a particularly good catalyst for the hydrogenation of unsaturated compounds in vegetable, animal, and fish oils (oil), converting them from liquids to solids. Natural oils treated in this way are used in such products as shortening, oleomargarine, and soap.

      Nickel is essential as the base for oxide-coated cathodes (cathode) used in all television tubes and all but the largest radio power tubes. Alloyed with about 2 percent tungsten plus a trace of magnesium, nickel is used as the cathode base in amplifiers for submarine cables that are expected to function for 20 years without attention.

      Nickel also is an essential component of white-gold alloys widely used for jewelry. These alloys also contain nickel, copper, and zinc, all of high purity.

      The white colour of nickel is attractive, and most of its alloys with copper are substantially white. Its ability to form strong, ductile alloys with many metals, including iron, chromium, cobalt, copper, and gold, is utilized in industry.

Nickel plating

      Nickel is resistant to corrosion by fluorine, alkalies, and a variety of organic materials. It remains bright on indoor exposure but tarnishes outdoors, although its corrosion rate is very low. Its low corrosion rate, coupled with its resistance to corrosion by sodium chloride and other chlorides used on roads during the winter, makes it essential as an undercoat on chromium-plated automotive trim (automotive industry). Heavy nickel plating is employed as a lining for tank cars and as a coating for the inner walls of large pipes and similar equipment in the chemical industry.

Copper-nickel

      The addition of copper to nickel provides a series of useful alloys. Monel metal, 67 percent nickel and the balance essentially copper, is stronger than nickel and has broad corrosion-resisting applications. Extremely resistant to rapidly flowing seawater, it has many marine uses. The addition of a small percentage of aluminum and titanium renders it precipitation-hardenable; this high-strength version is widely used for propeller shafts. Increasing copper to 55 percent produces the electrical resistance alloy known as constantan, which is used as a thermocouple in conjunction with pure copper.

      The 30 percent and 10 percent nickel-copper alloys, usually containing 0.5 percent and 1.5 percent iron, are widely used in the form of tubes for heat interchangers and condensers. Their resistance to seawater corrosion makes them important in desalination plants. Copper-based alloys containing a small percentage of nickel become precipitation-hardenable if 5–8 percent tin or a smaller amount of silicon or phosphorus is added. These have special uses.

      The ancient Chinese alloy pai-t'ung, now known as nickel-silver, contains 10–30 percent nickel with the balance copper plus zinc. This alloy continues as a favoured base for silver-plated ware. It also is used as a spring material for relays and has numerous other applications.

      An alloy of 25 percent nickel and 75 percent copper, essentially white in colour, was adopted for coinage (coin) by Belgium in 1860 and by the United States five years later. More recently it has been employed as the outer layer of copper-centred coins. Pure nickel was adopted by the Swiss for coinage in 1881; this use has spread to many other countries.

Magnetic (magnet) alloys

      The fact that nickel changes in length as it is magnetized makes it useful as an ultrasonic transducer in various underwater defense devices. Alloying nickel with about 21 percent iron has a spectacular effect in producing alloys with extraordinarily high magnetic permeability in weak fields. This type of alloy, known as Permalloy, discovered at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1916, has had a great value in long-distance telephone transmission, including undersea cables. Other alloys of about 45–50 percent nickel and the balance iron, have been developed for magnetic uses at higher field strengths.

      A remarkable group of nickel-containing permanent-magnet alloys was developed beginning in Japan in the early 1930s. An early example contained 25 percent nickel, 12 percent aluminum, and the balance iron. More powerful versions, such as alnico V (containing 8 percent aluminum, 14 percent nickel, 24 percent cobalt, 3 percent copper, balance iron), developed in The Netherlands, were heat-treated in a magnetic field. These materials had a profound effect on the design of many electrical devices, including magnetic separators, DC motors, and automobile generators.

Thermal-expansion alloys

       Invar, an alloy containing 36 percent nickel, with the balance iron, is notable for its extremely small thermal expansion. Discovered in 1898, it has, along with later-developed nickel alloys, many applications ranging from thermostats to balance wheels for watches, metal-to-glass seals essential to electric lights, and radio tubes.

High-strength steels (steel)

      The first major market for nickel was in the production of nickel and nickel- chromium steels for armour plate, an application based on the work of James Riley of Glasgow, Scot., in 1889 and tests by the U.S. Navy in 1891 on armour plate from a French steel producer. Military demands supported the industry for many years, but, with the development of steam-turbine power plants, the automobile, agricultural machines, and aircraft, a whole new group of high-strength steels containing from 0.5 to about 5 percent nickel along with other metals such as chromium and molybdenum were developed. More recently, with a demand for steels for ultralow-temperature use with liquefied gases, steel of 9 percent nickel and alloys of higher nickel content have come into demand. These steels rely on carbon for hardening by heat treatment. The nickel toughens the steel and slows the hardening process so that larger sections can be heat-treated. A carbon-free iron alloy known as maraging steel has been developed. It contains 18 percent nickel, plus cobalt, titanium, and molybdenum. This alloy can be heat-treated to provide a tensile strength of some 2,000 megapascals (i.e., 21,000 kilograms per square centimetre, or 300,000 pounds per square inch), coupled with an elongation of 5 to 10 percent.

Heat-resistant alloys

      Nickel is resistant to oxidation at high temperatures and to electrical erosion. For these reasons, alloys that are high in nickel, such as the 4 percent manganese alloy, are used for spark plug electrodes in automobiles and for other types of ignitors. The addition of 15–20 percent of chromium to nickel vastly improves oxidation resistance so that such alloys are used for electric resistance heaters. Alloys containing 15–20 percent chromium, plus various amounts of iron, and an alloy containing 35 percent chromium, 20 percent nickel, with the balance iron, find extensive industrial use where high strength and corrosion resistance over a wide range of temperatures are essential. The addition of small amounts of aluminum and titanium permits the alloy that is high in nickel and chromium to be further strengthened by precipitation treatment. Alloys of this general type made the jet-aircraft engine possible. Gas turbines require the same alloys and are growing in importance for industrial power uses.

Stainless steels

      A large group of alloy steels ranging from 18 percent chromium, 8 percent nickel, and 25 percent chromium, 20 percent nickel, to 20 percent chromium, 35–40 percent nickel are employed where corrosion resistance is a major requirement. The stainless steels (stainless steel), of which the 18-percent-chromium–8-percent-nickel variety is the best known, are widely employed where stain and corrosion resistance must be coupled with high strength. The largest single use of nickel is in the production of stainless steel.

Chemical compounds

      The compound nickel sulfate hexahydrate, NiSO₄ · 6H₂O, is employed in the electrolytic refining of nickel as well as in most nickel electroplating baths. Nickel chloride hexahydrate, NiCl₂ · 6H₂O, is often used in conjunction with the sulfate in plating baths; while the nickel sulfamate, Ni(SO₃NH₂) · 4H₂O, and the nickel fluoborate, Ni(BF₄)₂, are employed in some of the newer types of electroplating baths.

      Nickel dimethylglyoxime is an insoluble salt useful in analytical chemistry in precipitating nickel. Nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)₄, a liquid at room temperature, is employed in the carbonyl nickel-refining process. Like all other carbonyls, it is poisonous. Nickel subsulfide, Ni₃S₂, is the nickel component of matte involved in pyrometallurgy. Nickel oxide, NiO, is involved in refining processes and also may be an end product.

Edmund Merriman Wise John Campbell Taylor

Additional Reading

Comprehensive and up-to-date information on many aspects of metallurgy, individual metals, and alloys can be found in convenient reference-form arrangement in the following works: Metals Handbook, 9th ed., 17 vol. (1978–89), a massive and detailed source prepared under the direction of the American Society for Metals, with a 10th edition that began publication in 1990; Herman F. Mark et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed., 31 vol. (1978–84), formerly known as Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, with a 4th edition begun in 1991; and its European counterpart, the first English-language edition of a monumental German work, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 5th, completely rev. ed., edited by Wolfgang Gerhartz et al. (1985– ). Ed.Still the only comprehensive reference focusing on nickel ores, both sulfide and oxide, is Joseph R. Boldt, Jr., The Winning of Nickel: Its Geology, Mining, and Extractive Metallurgy (1967); it covers geology, mining, mineral processing, and extractive metallurgy of nickel and associated metals such as copper and cobalt. Boldt's work can be updated, but not replaced, by A.R. Burkin (ed.), Extractive Metallurgy of Nickel (1987), which contains information on more recent hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical processes; and by G.P. Tyroler and C.A. Landolt (eds.), Extractive Metallurgy of Nickel & Cobalt (1988), which collects symposium papers on the latest developments in mineral processing, hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy, nickel-cobalt health effects, and particular plant operations. W. Betteridge, Nickel and Its Alloys (1984), a concise work from a series of surveys of industrial metals, focuses on chemical processes. John Campbell Taylor

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