clupeiform

clupeiform

fish
Introduction

      any member of the superorder Clupeomorpha, a group of bony fishes (bony fish) with one living order, the Clupeiformes, that contains some of the world's most numerous and economically important fishes (fish). The order includes more than 400 species, about 20 of which provide more than one-third of the world fish catch. Clupeiforms are by far the most heavily exploited of all fish groups.

General features
      Most clupeiforms are small marine fishes (fish), under 30 cm (12 inches) in length, slender, streamlined, and rather nonspecialized in body form; a few species exceed 50 cm (about 20 inches) in length. The wolf herring, Chirocentrus dorab, is exceptional in size among the clupeiforms; this species reaches 3.6 metres (12 feet).

      Authorities disagree on many aspects of the classification of the order Clupeiformes. In 1966 a sweeping revision of the bony fishes (bony fish) by British ichthyologist P.H. Greenwood and American ichthyologists D.E. Rosen, Stanley H. Weitzman, and George S. Myers restricted the order to the families Clupeidae (herrings (herring), sardines (sardine), and allies), Engraulidae (anchovies (anchovy)), Chirocentridae (wolf herrings), and Denticipitidae (a family containing the denticle herrings [Denticeps clupeoides]). The last two families are of purely scientific interest; the dominant members of the order, in abundance and therefore in economic importance, are the herrings, sardines, pilchards (pilchard), menhadens (menhaden), sprats (bristling), anchovies, and anchovetas. Modern classifications also include the families Sundasalangidae (Sundaland noodlefishes) and Pristigasteridae (ilishas, longfin herrings, and pellonas). Other fish groups formerly included in the Clupeiformes are the tarpons (tarpon) and bonefishes (bonefish), salmons (salmon), trouts (trout), pikes (pike), bony tongues (bony tongue), and mormyrs (mormyrid).

      Most clupeiforms inhabit more or less offshore open waters in abundant schools. Although usually considered pelagic (inhabiting the open ocean), in relation to distribution and life history, they are closer to the neritic (coastal) fauna because they do not usually occur in the really open parts of the oceans; rather, they stay close to shore and in bays. Even the truly pelagic and migratory species spawn close to shore. The geographical distribution of the order is limited mainly by temperature and salinity. About 70 percent of the species occurs in tropical waters, only few visiting subtropical regions. More than 20 species are limited to purely boreal and subarctic distribution. Remarkably few species are found in the Southern Hemisphere.

      With respect to salinity, clupeiform fishes represent a fairly mixed group: most of them, approximately half of the living species, are wholly marine. The remaining species are either anadromous (living in the sea but entering fresh water to breed) or wholly freshwater fishes. The order includes some marine genera with large numbers of species, such as Sardinella and Harengula, which together comprise more than 60 genera and nearly 220 species. There are fewer anadromous clupeids, about 10 genera with 40 species, distributed mostly in temperate regions but some in subtropical areas. Freshwater clupeiform fishes include 31 species in 16 genera, most of them limited to the tropics. Nine genera with 15 species inhabit the rivers and lakes of Central and West Africa, and six species are distributed in freshwater environments of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago and Australia. In addition, two genera with four species occur in fresh waters of India, and some species of the genera Sigualosa and Dorosoma occur in Central America. Furthermore, a few single species of otherwise marine genera are found in the Amazon River (Rhinosardinia amazonica), in the rivers of Borneo (Ilisha macrogaster), and in freshwater lakes of the Philippines (Harengula tawilis). A few other species also occasionally occur in fresh water.

      Of the families and subfamilies of the Clupeiformes, the subfamilies Dussumieriinae (round herrings), Clupeinae (typical herrings), and the family Chirocentridae are purely marine. Other groups, such as the family Denticipitidae and subfamily Pellonulinae, are limited to fresh water. The subfamilies Alosinae (shads (shad) and alewives (alewife)) and Dorosomatinae (gizzard shads), along with some members of the family Pristigasteridae, inhabit anadromous, freshwater, brackish, or marine environments. Lastly, members of the family Engraulidae are brackish or marine.

Natural history
      It is virtually impossible to make a general statement about the biology of clupeiform fishes (fish), except to say that it varies greatly from one species to another. The life history of the majority of species remains little known. Species of economic importance have been extensively studied in order to discover the biological peculiarities that have the determining roles in abundance and distribution; knowledge of such characteristics, of course, is necessary for efficient fishing.

Reproduction
      Most clupeiforms lay their eggs (egg) near shore, often close inshore or in fjords and bays. Few clupeiform species spawn far from shore or in the open sea, except, notably, the Atlantic herring (herring) (Clupea harengus harengus), which spawns on offshore banks. The majority of the spawning grounds are limited to shallow waters ranging from slightly below mean low-tide level to a depth of about 4 metres (about 13 feet). Some clupeiforms, however, such as the Atlantic herring, do spawn at depths of 40 to 200 metres (approximately 130 to 660 feet). The bottom of the spawning grounds, especially those of species with sticky eggs, tends to be clean, hard, and covered with gravel and sand. Spawning takes place above a soft muddy bottom only if there is a vegetative cover. The freshwater and anadromous clupeiform species spawn in currents of riverbeds with a low mineral content, in shallows of big lakes, and (less often) in river arms and riverine lakes.

      The majority of clupeiform fishes have pelagic (free-floating) eggs, which float in the surface or bottom water layers. Egg position is maintained by the presence of a large swollen space between the egg itself and the outer membrane. Some forms (Clupea, Pomolobus) have sticky eggs with an adhesive secretion, so they stick to stones, gravel, or plants shortly after being released. Freshwater and anadromous clupeiforms usually have eggs slightly heavier than water. The slightest current and turbulence, resulting from wave action and convection of the water, constantly lift such eggs, which would normally sink to the bottom. In rivers they freely drift downstream above the bottom. Only a few freshwater forms, such as the freshwater sardine (Clupeonella abrau), have eggs that develop in the surface water.

      The number of eggs produced varies greatly, but, in general, smaller species produce few eggs, larger species produce many. One of the smaller sprats (Sprattus sprattus phalericus), with a maximum size of 8 cm (about 3 inches), produces about 2,000 eggs; one of the biggest shads (shad), Alosa kessleri kessleri, can produce more than 300,000 eggs; and menhaden (several species of Brevoortia) produce more than 500,000. Freshwater species usually have more eggs than marine species of comparable size, evidently an adaptation against the higher mortality in riverine conditions.

      Those species of clupeiforms with adhesive eggs produce more eggs than do those with free-floating eggs. Apparently, eggs that develop while sticking to the bottom have a much higher mortality rate from predators than do eggs that develop while floating in the surface water. Of great importance in reducing mortality rates is “repeated portion” spawning. In the majority, if not in all, clupeiform fishes, the eggs in the gonads do not become ripe all at once but in two or more portions. As a result, more eggs develop in the limited space of the body cavity, and the chances that some survive are enhanced if the first are destroyed.

      The many causes of spawn mortality range from those of a physical character, such as wave action and sudden temperature drops, to biological ones, such as predation by gulls and ducks. An important protective mechanism against destruction of the abundant schools is the remarkably early age at which they first breed; females begin frequently to spawn only a few months after hatching. This, coupled with high fecundity, gives the order a high reproductive potential.

      The duration of egg development varies from a few hours to nearly two months. An important factor in the rate of development is the temperature of the surrounding water; the cold-water herrings have the longest developmental period. The egg development of the Atlantic herring takes as long as 47 to 50 days at a temperature of 0.1 °C (just above 32 °F) but only eight days at 19 °C (66 °F). Some shad eggs develop in about 75 hours at a temperature of 17 °C (63 °F); however, they require only 49 hours at 19 °C. The eggs of the Tanganyika sardine (Stolothrissa tanganicae), a species that spawns at the surface in open areas of freshwater environments, hatch in 24 to 36 hours. The eggs constantly sink from the surface to a depth of 75 to 150 metres (250 to 500 feet) at a temperature of 25 °C (77 °F).

Growth and mortality
      The thin, threadlike, newly hatched larva has a shape characteristic of nearly all clupeiform fishes, but its behaviour varies greatly, depending on the habitat. In marine species such as the Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii), the larvae, shortly after hatching, tend to be concentrated near the surface and usually stay a long time in the area of the spawning ground. The larvae of the Atlantic herring at first tend to make short, upward movements from the spawning beds on the bottom and then sink back again. They start to make horizontal movements within two hours after hatching, and after six hours they start to form swarms. As their length increases, the vertical movements become more and more pronounced, particularly at night. Larvae have been found to be dispersed by currents at depths of from 1 to 600 metres (roughly 3 to 2,000 feet). Later, juveniles drift with the current on the surface, sometimes as far as 1,300 km (slightly more than 800 miles). The larvae of the Tanganyika sardine, less than 2 mm (0.08 inch) long, tend after hatching to come straight up by swimming movements of the tail, which is the only flexible part of the body; they sink, however, as soon as they stop movement. Such vertical movement is vital, because the larvae would not survive were they to sink below the level of oxygenated water (80–200 metres [roughly 260–650 feet]). As they grow, the larvae gradually move to the surface waters; when they are about 5 to 6 mm (0.2 to 0.24 inch) long, they move toward the shore. They form schools when about 10 mm (0.4 inch) in size. In the Atlantic menhaden (menhaden) (Brevoortia tyrannus), a species that spawns in riverine environments, the newly hatched pelagic larvae first drift downriver between fresh and brackish water and shoreward from spawning areas and into estuarine nursery areas. Later, pelagic juveniles tend to move upstream as far as 50 km (31 miles), emigrating into the sea only after nearly one year.

      In the early stages of life, all clupeiforms are subject to a high mortality rate, by predation of larger fishes, birds, comb jellies (ctenophores), and arrowworms (chaetognathans) and by being carried out of sheltered bays into localities in which the proper food is lacking. Mortality has been estimated at well over 99 percent, but, because of the extremely high fecundity, the distribution, and the early maturity, the recruitment of new breeding individuals remains high. The age of first sexual maturity is seldom more than three years, and the length at maturity rarely exceeds more than 15 cm (approximately 6 inches). Late-spawning species are usually larger and move over long distances. The age at first breeding is broadly correlated with rate of growth of the individual and with maximum length attained by the species, but there are other determining factors, some of which are unknown. The Siberian shad (Alosa saposhnikovi), the Baltic sprat (Sprattus sprattus balticus), and the Clupeonella engrauliformis all mature at two to three years of age but at lengths of 160 to 200 mm (roughly 6.25 to 8 inches), 120 to 130 mm (4.75 to 5 inches), and 85 to 100 mm (3.3 to 4 inches), respectively. Different populations of a species may vary in their growth rates; the races of the Atlantic herring vary from two to seven years in age at maturity and from 100 to 185 mm (4 to 7.25 inches) in length at maturity. In anadromous populations of the alewife (A. pseudoharengus), sexual maturity occurs at three to four years of age and at 150 to 170 mm (roughly 6 to 6.75 inches) in length, but those of landlocked populations breed at one to two years of age and at 95 to 100 mm (3.75 to 4 inches).

      During their life cycle, some clupeiforms undertake very long migrations of several thousand kilometres; others live in a more or less circumscribed area. Such differences occur, however, even within a species; some races of the herring, for example, spend their entire lives in more or less limited areas, while others undertake some of the longest known migrations. Some forms of the Caspian shad (Alosa caspia) remain year-round in the southern region of the Caspian Sea, while others move long distances from winter habitats in southern parts to spawning grounds in the northern region of the Caspian.

      In addition to spawning migrations, some species travel long distances for feeding. Japanese pilchards (Sardinella sagax melanosticta), for example, winter and spawn in the southern part of the Sea of Japan and on the Pacific side of the southern islands of Japan. In early summer they migrate to the northern end of the Tatar Strait and, in warm years, even to the eastern shore of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Similar or even longer migrations are made by the Californian pilchard or Spanish sardine (S. anchovia) and others. Most of these spawning and feeding migrations are from south to north and occur along the coast with the aid of some of the larger ocean currents. As the fish move fairly close to shore, they become the object of intensive fishing.

      Some of the longest migrations extend over several years and start in the larval stages. The majority of the young Pacific herring spend part or the whole of their first year in shallow coastal waters. Larvae of the Murman race of Pacific herring and Norwegian race (or spring race) of North Atlantic herring usually hatch on offshore spawning grounds and start their long journey drifting with the currents. Those of the Murman race drift with the North Atlantic Current along the coast of northern Norway, north and east, and later, as juveniles, they spread actively into the Barents Sea and even into the White Sea. After their first spawning, the Murman herrings move north to the waters around Spitsbergen. The movements of the Norwegian spring herring are similar to those of the Murman race. The young herrings move into deeper water and, as they grow bigger, move farther and farther from the coast. While still immature, they are taken by fisheries in Norway, Denmark, and Scotland and are processed for oil and into meal. As a rule, migrations are oriented by the sea currents near the spawning grounds, but the fish go as well with or against the current direction; four forms of the Caspian shad are known to move against currents.

Food ecology
      Feeding habits and the intensity of movement determine the relative abundance of various species of clupeiform fishes; these same factors determine economic importance. All of the abundant (and economically important) species feed on plankton—pelagic protozoans (diatoms and flagellates), copepods, metazoan larvae, euphausids, and amphipods. Some apparently feed year-round, as long as food is available, but most change their feeding habits seasonally. It is known that all forms of the herring and most members of the genera Alosa and Clupeonella do not feed during the spawning season; feeding is most intensive in the summer after spawning and less so in spring before spawning.

      Predatory clupeids seem to be relatively scarce and usually have a much smaller commercial value than do the plankton feeders. The fish-eating race of Russian shad A. kessleri kessleri, for instance, is far less abundant and is caught less often than is the plankton-feeding race A. k. volgensis.

      Some evidence suggests that even among plankton-feeding clupeiform fishes some species are as a rule abundant, whereas many others are more or less rare. This variation is apparently determined in large part by the size of the inhabited area and the size of spawning grounds, while the time and distance of migrations preceding the age of first reproduction are of secondary importance. The Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax)—which inhabits vast areas on both sides of the North Pacific, the South Pacific coasts of South America and Australia, and the Indian Ocean coasts of Australia and Africa—is a good example of a widespread, highly migratory, and economically important species. (The Atlantic herring [Clupea harengus] is a similar example.) On the other hand, most of the Pacific races of herring are local and nonmigratory, and their role in commercial catches is far below the value of the Atlantic races. The Japanese pilchard is known to feed in southern as well as in northern regions, and from the ecological point of view this whole area of the Pacific is fully utilized. The high abundance of anchovies (anchovy) is determined more by their early age of sexual maturity than by their movements; similarly, the relatively high abundance in a restricted habitat of the Tanganyika sardines appears to stem from precocious breeding.

      The size of the inhabited area is reflected in the presence of more-progressive adaptive morphological characteristics. The clupeiforms with more-primitive features (such as Denticeps, Dorosoma, Clupeonella) are less abundant and are limited to small areas. Tropical genera have more different species; subtropical and temperate genera are more often monotypic (comprising a single species) but are far more abundant.

Schooling behaviour
      With few exceptions, the important behavioral characteristics of clupeiforms are schooling and diurnal (daily) vertical movements. Schools are formed with larvae or young juveniles. A fish less than 10 mm (0.4 inch) long approaches the tail of another; both vibrate their bodies in a series of rapid motions, after which they swim together. Occasionally they are joined by others, and, as the fish grow a few more millimetres in length, the first small schools increase in size and begin to show a steady schooling pattern. Opinions differ on whether the school keeps together through visual contact—it sometimes tends to break up at night—or through sensations received by the lateral line system, a series of sensory endings extending along the side of the fish. When the schools do persist after nightfall, the lateral line system may also play a significant role in preventing one fish from straying.

      Single schools of herring or anchoveta have been estimated to include many millions of individuals, and some authorities assert that as many as three million fish may occur in a single school. Even a big school such as this behaves as if it were one organism, with a roughly spherical shape that is flattened when the school comes into shallow waters or approaches the surface. Within a school of anchovies, the larger individuals tend to be below and the smaller ones above, so that light is allowed to filter through the whole school. There are limits to the size of individuals in any big school; for herring, the difference between the largest and smallest members of a school is about 50 percent. Fishes above or below the size limit break away and form schools among themselves, but even large uniform schools occasionally break apart, and small schools may fuse into larger units. The uniform size of individuals within a school (mostly the same age group) is of convenience to humans and the fishing and canning industries, as the fish sort themselves out naturally.

      Within the school, each fish usually is spaced evenly with enough room between it and the others to swim but not to turn around. In all schools of some species, and in some schools of others, the fish swim with their heads side by side; in other species (such as herring) the head of each fish lies next to the middle of its neighbour's body. The schools may spread out or become very tight, depending on the situation.

      The primary advantage of the schooling habit seems to lie in the safety of the individual fish. Sardines react to attacks by predators by swimming closer together and milling around in tight, compact balls; herring form a close school with any approach of danger. The reaction of anchovies to predators is even more intense; a school that may be spread over several hundred metres contracts at the approach of a predator to a moving, writhing sphere of thousands of fishes only a few metres across. In such a situation the predator cannot concentrate on a single individual and may be frustrated in its attempt to catch any fish.

      The adaptive value of schooling behaviour is poorly understood, but several logical explanations have been advanced. Schooling evidently provides a better chance for small fish to survive many environmental hazards than if they live solitarily. The instinctive tendency of the tiny larvae to associate, even though hatched from scattered eggs, ensures the formation of the school—with its protection from predation. Certain hydrodynamic interactions between members of the school are thought to facilitate feeding movements, and the aggregation of so many fish simplifies the finding of mates.

      Although anchovy schools progress steadily through the water, they do not seem to have any leader or leader groups. Observers from the air have noted that

fish travelling in the vanguard often drop back and are replaced by others from the flanks and this is repeated in due course. When the school changes course, the fish from the flank find themselves on the leading edge and the previous leading edge becomes a flank. These manoeuvres are carried out with such precision that one has the impression of watching a single creature moving through the water.

      The behaviour of the school is determined most probably by the order of feeding. If a school were to swim straight forward, the fish in front would capture most of the food organisms, and those in the rear would starve. Instead, the leading individuals turn back to either flank and, step by step, return to the rear of the school; in this way each fish gets its turn to feed.

      The depth at which the schools swim depends on the movements of plankton, light intensity, temperature, and the maturation cycle of gonads (that is, whether the fish are in breeding condition). There are diurnal vertical movements of schools, related mainly to the corresponding movements of plankton. Most clupeiform schools are believed to stay near the bottom or in deep water during the day and to move toward the surface during the night. Herring often vertically migrate from depths of 300 to 400 metres (roughly 1,000 to 1,300 feet) during the day toward the surface water at night and thus move from deep cold waters of about 3 °C (37 °F) to somewhat warmer surface waters of 5 °C to 7 °C (41 °F to 45 °F). On moonless nights, clupeid schools can be attracted to beams from strong lights and congregate near the surface—a behavioral pattern often exploited by fishermen.

Form and function

Distinguishing characteristics
 The main differences evident among the various clupeiform groups lie in the positions and sizes of the various fins. If a herring (Clupetta), a pilchard (Sardinops), and a sprat (Sprattus) are held by the leading edge of their dorsal fins, the herring's body orientation is approximately horizontal, because the fin is located at the centre of the back. In contrast, the pilchard hangs with its tail lower, because the fin is located nearer to the head. Since the sprat's fin is closer to the tail, the sprat will hang with its head lower. The differences of fin position are not pronounced in the larvae, which have a characteristically elongated form with the dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins located far back. The forward part of the body forms an extremely elongated wormlike feature, and, most characteristic, the dorsal fin is never above the pelvic fins, as it is in adults, but is well back, usually somewhere between the pelvic and anal fins; in larval anchovies, it is even above the anal fin.

      During the larval transformation the elongated anterior part of the body becomes progressively shorter, as the fins shift forward by a complicated morphological process. The dorsal fin is shifted forward above the lateral body muscles (myomeres); the pelvic fins move backward to their adult position; and the anal fin moves forward simultaneously. In adults of the families Denticipitidae and Chirocentridae the dorsal fin stays above the anal fin, far back on the body; in the Engraulidae it usually stops a little farther back than the pelvic fins; and in the Clupeidae it generally reaches a position directly above the pelvic fins. As a rule, however, even within families and genera the relative positions of the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins are somewhat variable and are often used in classification. The position of the dorsal fin becomes stable at the time the larvae transform into juveniles. The positions of the anal and pelvic fins, however, often change later in life, probably because of the swelling of the body cavity with gonad development.

      With only a few exceptions, fishes (fish) with more forwardly positioned dorsal fins have fewer rays in their anal fin but more rays in the dorsal. The lateral line canals (lateral line system) on the head are most developed in fishes with the dorsal fin located anteriorly. The lateral line system serves as an orientation device. As it is sensitive to disturbances in the surrounding water, it is most important in fishes that school densely. Not surprisingly, the species with the most progressively developed morphological features (that is, the greatest changes from the “primitive” condition of the larval stage) are the best swimmers and undertake the longest migrations. Such features include the anteriorly located dorsal fin, a smaller number of rays in the anal fin, and a strong lateral line system on the head.

      The development of denticles (toothlike skin projections) and teeth represents another specialization of evolutionary importance. The most primitive clupeiform fishes have an enormous number of dermal denticles (on the head and in the mouth), which have been replaced in evolutionarily more-advanced forms by teeth, which are larger and fewer in number. In Denticeps, for example, the whole head and part of the body are covered by numerous small dermal denticles. Different species of the Clupeidae have small denticles or teeth limited to the bones of the mouth cavity, and anchovies have rows of tiny teeth in the jaws. Finally, Chirocentrus has straight sharp teeth on the upper jaw, the tongue, and in a few other places in the mouth and has large “canine” teeth on the lower jaw.

      The ventral part of the body in the majority of clupeiform fishes forms a keel, the function of which is widely considered to be an adaptation for removing the sharp shadow that would be created below the central part of the body by top lighting, were the fish cylindrical. Prevention of such a shadow is important to an open-water fish often living close to the surface and unprotected from all sides. Seen from below, the keel and the glossy silver sides of the body cause the fish to disappear in the mirrorlike reflection of the water surface. Viewed from above, the fish is protected by the dark cryptic colouring of the dorsal part, which simulates the colour of the deep water. The predator who encounters and sees the whole school is also deceived by the resemblance of the tight school to a larger organism. Against nets and electronic devices, however, such coloration and schooling behaviour afford little protection.

Physiology
      The movement of anadromous clupeiforms from highly saline ocean into freshwater rivers and lakes requires special physiological adaptations to regulate the blood's osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressure can be described as the pressure of a water solution of salts exerted in either direction against a semipermeable membrane. This pressure is caused by differences between the concentrations of dissolved salts within the body and those outside, in the sea. When a fish enters water of salinity lower than seawater, slight increases in osmotic pressure cause the kidneys to excrete larger amounts of water. The conversion from saltwater to freshwater physiology requires some time, however, so the fish usually remains in brackish waters to avoid a sudden physiological shock. During the periods when anadromous fishes are migrating into or out of fresh water, they form large aggregations in estuaries, awaiting the changeover in their osmotic regulating systems.

Classification

Distinguishing taxonomic features
      Three main character complexes have recently been recognized and accepted as distinguishing the clupeiform fishes: (1) the presence of an internal connection between the swim bladder and the inner ear, usually forming two large vesicles (cavities) within the skull bones; (2) certain peculiarities of the skull, involving the relation of the lateral line canals to each other and to the ear; (3) certain complex features in the caudal (tail) fin skeleton.

Annotated classification
      A recent and widely accepted classification of the order Clupeiformes by British ichthyologist P.H. Greenwood and American ichthyologists Donn E. Rosen, Stanley H. Weitzman, and George S. Myers (1966) is presented below with modifications by J.S. Nelson (2006) and other sources.

Order Clupeiformes
 Silvery laterally compressed fishes; mainly marine, but many anadromous or wholly freshwater; mostly pelagic and schooling fishes. Lateral-line canal on head usually extending over operculum (gill cover). About 400 living species.
      Suborder Denticipitoidei
 Caudal skeleton of extremely primitive type; small arches present on 2 centra (bodies of vertebrae) to carry the first 3 hypural bones (fused spines of the vertebrae) of the tail fin. 1 family.

      Family Denticipitidae (denticle herrings)
 The most primitive living clupeiform. Numerous dermal denticles present on head, on the dorsal part of the secondary pectoral girdle, and on the scales around the anterior end of the lateral line. Lateral line completely developed on the trunk. 1 living species, Denticeps clupeoides, in fast-running clear water in medium-sized streams of Nigeria and Cameroon; and a single fossil species, Palaeodenticeps tanganikae, from the Eocene lacustrine sediments in Tanzania.

      Suborder Clupeoidei
 Characteristic caudal skeleton: the second hypural bone lacks any connection with the urostyle (tail support) and is separated from it by a distinct gap. Lateral line pores completely lacking on trunk. Keeled scutes (projecting scales) usually present along the ventral midline of the abdomen. Family Pristigasteridae. Mouth superior or terminal; abdominal scutes present; anal fin long, 30–92 rays; no notch in third hypural bone of caudal skeleton. Primarily marine, some freshwater; Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. 9 genera, 34 species.

      Family Clupeidae (herrings (herring), sardines (sardine), pilchards (pilchard), shads (shad), menhadens (menhaden), and allies)
 Teeth usually absent in mouth or very weakly developed; minute in jaw. Keel scales well developed, except in round herrings (subfamily Dussumieriinae), in which they are absent and the ventral part of body is rounded. About 56 genera and 190 species, virtually worldwide in marine waters and in many bodies of fresh water.

      Family Engraulidae (anchovies (anchovy))
 Mostly smaller fishes than clupeids, with the snout projecting beyond the very wide mouth. Upper and lower jaws usually armed with rows of minute teeth that sometimes become larger in the posterior end of the jaws. About 200 species; primarily marine with a few anadromous; found in very large schools.

      Family Chirocentridae (wolf herrings (wolf herring))
 Body laterally compressed and elongated, with sharp, keeled ventral margin; scales small. Lower jaw strongly projecting; large fanglike teeth in both jaws. 1 genus (Chirocentrus), 2 living species (C. dorab and C. nudus) widely but sparsely distributed in the Sea of Japan, the Pacific Ocean off Australia and in Melanesia, the Red Sea, and along the east coast of Africa. Used for food in some areas but not very palatable. Larger than other clupeiforms, reaching at least 3.6 metres (12 feet) in length.

      Family Sundasalangidae (Sundaland noodlefishes)
 1 genus (Sundasalanx), 7 species.

      Family Pristigasteridae (longfin herrings)
 Mouth superior or terminal; abdominal scutes present; anal fin long, 30–92 rays; no notch in third hypural bone of caudal skeleton. Primarily marine, some freshwater; Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. 9 genera, 34 species.

Critical appraisal
      Until the revision of the bony fishes (bony fish) by P.H. Greenwood and his colleagues in 1966, the most widely accepted classifications were those by the renowned British ichthyologist C.T. Regan in 1929, the Soviet ichthyologist L.S. Berg in 1940, and French ichthyologists L. Bertin and Camille Arambourg in 1958. The three earlier systems from these authorities differ widely from one another in the scope of the order Clupeiformes, in the subdivisions of the order, and in the order of families. However, all three systems include many more groups than were considered related to the clupeid fishes by Greenwood and colleagues. The earlier classifications grouped a large number of fishes characterized by having soft—as opposed to spiny—fin rays together in one order with Clupeiformes, or Isopondyli.

      Greenwood and his colleagues postulated, on the basis of a number of other features in both modern and fossil fishes, that this similarity is overridden by more-fundamental differences that indicate a long history of phyletic separation. The families Denticipitidae, Clupeidae, Engraulidae, and Chirocentridae were separated by Regan, Berg, Bertin, and Arambourg into the distinct superorder Clupeomorpha. Clupeomorpha was then placed in Division I, one of the three subgroups of the bony fishes. The bony tongues (bony tongue), mormyrs (mormyrid), and relatives, treated by Bertin and Arambourg as suborders of the Clupeiformes, were placed by Greenwood and colleagues in the superorder Osteoglossomorpha (osteoglossomorph), the sole group in Division II. The remaining fishes formerly included in the Clupeiformes—mainly made up of the salmons (salmon), trouts (trout), pikes (pike), and a number of deep-sea forms—were placed in order Salmoniformes (salmoniform), part of Division III.

      Subsequent phylogenetic analyses of clupeiform fishes and lower teleosts (teleost) confirm the limits of the order Clupeiformes—as set by Greenwood and his colleagues—and the order's classification as primitive to the euteleost fishes, the most advanced of the higher fishes. Other developments occurred. The former subfamilies Pristigasterinae and Pelloninae were removed from the Clupeidae, and some recent classifications group these subfamilies into the family Pristigasteridae. In addition, characters from molecular sequence data and a reinterpretation of the similarities between the bony connection between the swim bladder and the inner ear of clupeiforms and ostariophysans (ostariophysan) led to the proposal that these two groups of lower teleosts are closely related and should be classified together as otocephalans.

Eugene Kornel Balon

Additional Reading
P.H. Greenwood et al., “Phyletic Studies of Teleostean Fishes with a Provisional Classification of Living Forms,” Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 131:339–455 (1966), contains the classification that is used in this article. Different classifications and arrangements are in: L.S. Berg, “Classification of Fishes, Both Recent and Fossil,” Trav. Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., vol. 5, no. 2 (1940; reprinted in book form, 1947), Russian and English texts; Leon Bertin and Camille Arambourg, “Super-ordre des téléostéens (Teleostei),” in P.P. Grassé (ed.), Traité de zoologie, vol. 13, fasc. 3, pp. 2204–2500 (1958); P.J.P. Whitehead, “A Contribution to the Classification of Clupeoid Fishes,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Series 13, 5:737–750 (1962); H.S. Clausen, “Denticipitidae, a New Family of Primitive Isospondylous Teleosts from West African Freshwater,” Vidensk. Meddr. Dansk Naturh. Foren., 121:141–151 (1959), the first scientific description of an unknown and evolutionary important Clupeiformes family; M.B. Schaefer, “Men, Birds and Anchovies in the Peru Current: Dynamic Interactions,” Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 99:461–467 (1970), an evaluation of the most abundant species resources; A.J. Mansueti and J.D. Hardy, Development of Fishes of the Chesapeake Bay Region: An Atlas of Egg, Larval, and Juvenile Stages (1967); E.K. Balon, “First Catches of Lake Tanganyika Clupeids (kapenta—Limothrissa miodon) in Lake Kariba,” Bull. Fish. Res. Zambia, 5:175–186 (1971), an account of successful artificial introduction into a new area; and A.N. Svetovidov, “Fauna of the U.S.S.R.,” Fishes, vol. 2, no. 1, Clupeidae (1963; originally published in Russian, 1952), a good source of biological and morphological data with an extensive bibliography.

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