Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr Isayevich

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr Isayevich
▪ 2009

      Russian novelist and historian

born Dec. 11, 1918, Kislovodsk, Russia

died Aug. 3, 2008, Troitse-Lykovo, near Moscow, Russia
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1970, but he declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize for fear that the government would not readmit him to the Soviet Union upon his return. Although he lived for two decades (1974–94) in honoured exile in the West, he tended to favour the formation of a benevolent authoritarian regime based on Russia's traditional Christian values rather than Western emphases on democracy and individual freedom. Solzhenitsyn was born into a family of Cossack intellectuals; he attended the University of Rostov-na-Donu, graduating in mathematics, and took correspondence courses in literature at Moscow State University. After achieving the rank of captain of artillery during World War II, he was arrested in 1945 for having written a letter in which he criticized Joseph Stalin, and he spent eight years in prisons and labour camps and three more years in enforced exile. Rehabilitated in 1956, he became a mathematics teacher and began to write. Solzhenitsyn submitted his short novel Odin den iz zhizni Ivana Denisovicha (1962; One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich) to the leading Soviet literary periodical Novy Mir (“New World”). The novel, based on Solzhenitsyn's own experiences, was noted for its simple, direct language and the obvious authority with which it treated the daily struggles and material hardships of life in a forced-labour camp during the Stalin era. The book produced a sensation both abroad and in the Soviet Union. After the publication of a collection of his short stories in 1963, however, he was denied further official publication of his work, and he resorted to samizdat (“self-published”) literature. His most significant works of this period were V kruge pervom (1968; The First Circle), Rakovy korpus (1968; Cancer Ward), and Avgust 1914 (1971; August 1914). In December 1973 the first parts of Arkhipelag Gulag (The Gulag Archipelago) were published in Paris after the KGB had seized a copy of the manuscript in the Soviet Union. The work mingles historical exposition and Solzhenitsyn's own autobiographical accounts of the Gulag with the voluminous personal testimony of other inmates—histories that he collected and committed to memory during his earlier imprisonment. He was arrested and charged with treason on Feb. 12, 1974, and was exiled from the Soviet Union on the following day; in December he took possession of his Nobel Prize. The second and third volumes of The Gulag Archipelago were published in 1974–75. An extensively expanded and revised version of August 1914 appeared in Russian in 1983 as the first part of a projected series. In 1989 Novy Mir published the first officially approved excerpts from The Gulag Archipelago. Solzhenitsyn's Soviet citizenship was officially restored in 1990, and he returned to Russia in 1994. Solzhenitsyn established (1997) an annual prize for writers contributing to the Russian literary tradition, and in 2007 he was awarded Russia's prestigious State Prize for his contribution to humanitarian causes.

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▪ Russian author
born Dec. 11, 1918, Kislovodsk, Russia
died Aug. 3, 2008, Troitse-Lykovo, near Moscow
 Russian novelist and historian, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1970.

      Solzhenitsyn was born into a family of Cossack intellectuals and brought up primarily by his mother (his father was killed in an accident before his birth). He attended the University of Rostov-na-Donu, graduating in mathematics, and took correspondence courses in literature at Moscow State University. He fought in World War II, achieving the rank of captain of artillery; in 1945, however, he was arrested for writing a letter in which he criticized Joseph Stalin and spent eight years in prisons and labour camps, after which he spent three more years in enforced exile. Rehabilitated in 1956, he was allowed to settle in Ryazan, in central Russia, where he became a mathematics teacher and began to write.

      Encouraged by the loosening of government restraints on cultural life that was a hallmark of the de-Stalinizing policies of the early 1960s, Solzhenitsyn submitted his short novel Odin den iz zhizni Ivana Denisovicha (1962; One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich) to the leading Soviet literary periodical Novy Mir (“New World”). The novel quickly appeared in that journal's pages and met with immediate popularity, Solzhenitsyn becoming an instant celebrity. Ivan Denisovich, based on Solzhenitsyn's own experiences, described a typical day in the life of an inmate of a forced-labour camp during the Stalin era. The impression made on the public by the book's simple, direct language and by the obvious authority with which it treated the daily struggles and material hardships of camp life was magnified by its being one of the first Soviet literary works of the post-Stalin era to directly describe such a life. The book produced a political sensation both abroad and in the Soviet Union, where it inspired a number of other writers to produce accounts of their imprisonment under Stalin's regime.

      Solzhenitsyn's period of official favour proved to be short-lived, however. Ideological strictures on cultural activity in the Soviet Union tightened with Nikita Khrushchev's fall from power in 1964, and Solzhenitsyn met first with increasing criticism and then with overt harassment from the authorities when he emerged as an eloquent opponent of repressive government policies. After the publication of a collection of his short stories in 1963, he was denied further official publication of his work, and he resorted to circulating them in the form of samizdat (“self-published”) literature—i.e., as illegal literature circulated clandestinely—as well as publishing them abroad.

      The following years were marked by the foreign publication of several ambitious novels that secured Solzhenitsyn's international literary reputation. V kruge pervom (1968; The First Circle) was indirectly based on his years spent working in a prison research institute as a mathematician. The book traces the varying responses of scientists at work on research for the secret police as they must decide whether to cooperate with the authorities and thus remain within the research prison or to refuse their services and be thrust back into the brutal conditions of the labour camps. Rakovy korpus (1968; Cancer Ward) was based on Solzhenitsyn's hospitalization and successful treatment for terminally diagnosed cancer during his forced exile in Kazakhstan during the mid-1950s. The main character, like Solzhenitsyn himself, was a recently released inmate of the camps.

      In 1970 Solzhenitsyn was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, but he declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize for fear he would not be readmitted to the Soviet Union by the government upon his return. His next novel to be published outside the Soviet Union was Avgust 1914 (1971; August 1914), a historical novel treating Germany's crushing victory over Russia in their initial military engagement of World War I, the Battle of Tannenburg. The novel centred on several characters in the doomed 1st Army of the Russian general A.V. Samsonov and indirectly explored the weaknesses of the tsarist regime that eventually led to its downfall by revolution in 1917.

      In December 1973 the first parts of Arkhipelag Gulag (The Gulag Archipelago) were published in Paris after a copy of the manuscript had been seized in the Soviet Union by the KGB. (Gulag is an acronym formed from the official Soviet designation of its system of prisons and labour camps.) The Gulag Archipelago is Solzhenitsyn's attempt to compile a literary-historical record of the vast system of prisons and labour camps that came into being shortly after the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia (1917) and that underwent an enormous expansion during the rule of Stalin (1924–53). Various sections of the work describe the arrest, interrogation, conviction, transportation, and imprisonment of the Gulag's victims as practiced by Soviet authorities over four decades. The work mingles historical exposition and Solzhenitsyn's own autobiographical accounts with the voluminous personal testimony of other inmates that he collected and committed to memory during his imprisonment.

 Upon publication of the first volume of The Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenitsyn was immediately attacked in the Soviet press. Despite the intense interest in his fate that was shown in the West, he was arrested and charged with treason on Feb. 12, 1974. Solzhenitsyn was exiled from the Soviet Union on the following day, and in December he took possession of his Nobel Prize.

      In 1975 a documentary novel, Lenin v Tsyurikhe: glavy (Lenin in Zurich: Chapters), appeared, as did Bodalsya telyonok s dubom (The Oak and the Calf), an autobiographical account of literary life in the Soviet Union. The second and third volumes of The Gulag Archipelago were published in 1974–75. Solzhenitsyn traveled to the United States, where he eventually settled on a secluded estate in Cavendish, Vt. The brief The Mortal Danger (1980), translated from an essay Solzhenitsyn wrote for the journal Foreign Affairs, analyzes what he perceived to be the perils of American misconceptions about Russia. In 1983 an extensively expanded and revised version of August 1914 appeared in Russian as the first part of a projected series, Krasnoe koleso (The Red Wheel); other volumes (or uzly [“knots”]) in the series were Oktyabr 1916 (“October 1916”), Mart 1917 (“March 1917”), and Aprel 1917 (“April 1917”).

      In presenting alternatives to the Soviet regime, Solzhenitsyn tended to reject Western emphases on democracy and individual freedom and instead favoured the formation of a benevolent authoritarian regime that would draw upon the resources of Russia's traditional Christian values. The introduction of glasnost (“openness”) in the late 1980s brought renewed access to Solzhenitsyn's work in the Soviet Union. In 1989 the Soviet literary magazine Novy Mir published the first officially approved excerpts from The Gulag Archipelago. Solzhenitsyn's Soviet citizenship was officially restored in 1990.

      Solzhenitsyn ended his exile and returned to Russia in 1994. He subsequently made several public appearances and even met privately with Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin. In 1997 Solzhenitsyn established an annual prize for writers contributing to the Russian literary tradition. Installments of his autobiography, Ugodilo zernyshko promezh dvukh zhernovov: ocherki izgnaniia (“The Little Grain Managed to Land Between Two Millstones: Sketches of Exile”), were published from 1998 to 2003, and his history of Russian Jews, Dvesti let vmeste, 1795–1995 (“Two Hundred Years Together”), was published in 2001–02. In 2007 Solzhenitsyn was awarded Russia's prestigious State Prize for his contribution to humanitarian causes.

Additional Reading
Michael Scammell, Solzhenitsyn (1984), is an extensive biography. Critical studies include John B. Dunlop, Richard S. Haugh, and Alexis Klimoff (eds.), Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1973); Stephen Carter, The Politics of Solzhenitsyn (1977); James M. Curtis, Solzhenitsyn's Traditional Imagination (1984); John B. Dunlop, Richard S. Haugh, and Michael Nicholson (eds.), Solzhenitsyn in Exile (1985); and Edward E. Ericson, Jr., Solzhenitsyn and the Modern World (1993).

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Universalium. 2010.

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