short story

—short-story, adj.

a piece of prose fiction, usually under 10,000 words.

[1885-90]

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Brief fictional prose narrative.

It usually presents a single significant episode or scene involving a limited number of characters. The form encourages economy of setting and concise narration; character is disclosed in action and dramatic encounter but seldom fully developed. A short story may concentrate on the creation of mood rather than the telling of a story. Despite numerous precedents, it emerged only in the 19th century as a distinct literary genre in the works of writers such as E.T.A. Hoffmann, Heinrich Kleist, Edgar Allan Poe, Prosper Mérimée, Guy de Maupassant, and Anton Chekhov.

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▪ literature

Introduction

      brief fictional prose narrative that is shorter than a novel and that usually deals with only a few characters.

      The short story is usually concerned with a single effect conveyed in only one or a few significant episodes or scenes. The form encourages economy of setting, concise narrative, and the omission of a complex plot; character is disclosed in action and dramatic encounter but is seldom fully developed. Despite its relatively limited scope, though, a short story is often judged by its ability to provide a “complete” or satisfying treatment of its characters and subject.

      Before the 19th century the short story was not generally regarded as a distinct literary (literature) form. But although in this sense it may seem to be a uniquely modern genre, the fact is that short prose fiction is nearly as old as language itself. Throughout history humankind has enjoyed various types of brief narratives: jests, anecdotes, studied digressions, short allegorical romances, moralizing fairy tales, short myths, and abbreviated historical legends. None of these constitutes a short story as the 19th and 20th centuries have defined the term, but they do make up a large part of the milieu from which the modern short story emerged.

      The short stories of particular literary cultures, along with other genres, are discussed in articles such as Western literature, and in articles on the arts of various peoples—e.g., arts, South Asian (South Asian arts).

Arlen J. Hansen Ed.

Analysis of the genre

      As a genre, the short story has received relatively little critical attention, and the most valuable studies of the form that exist are often limited by region or era (e.g., Ray B. West's The Short Story in America, 1900–50). One recent attempt to account for the genre has been offered by the Irish short story writer Frank O'Connor (O'Connor, Frank), who suggests that stories are a means for “submerged population groups” to address a dominating community. Most other theoretical discussions, however, are predicated in one way or another on Edgar Allan Poe's thesis that stories must have a compact, unified effect.

      By far the majority of criticism (literary criticism) on the short story focusses on techniques of writing. Many, and often the best of the technical works, advise the young reader—alerting him to the variety of devices and tactics employed by the skilled writer. On the other hand, many of these works are no more than treatises on “how to write stories” for the young writer, and not serious critical material.

      The prevalence in the 19th century of two words, “sketch (literary sketch)” and “tale,” affords one way of looking at the genre. In the United States alone there were virtually hundreds of books claiming to be collections of sketches (Washington Irving's Sketch Book, William Dean Howells' Suburban Sketches) or collections of tales (Poe's Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque, Herman Melville's Piazza Tales). These two terms establish the polarities of the milieu out of which the modern short story grew.

      The tale is much older than the sketch. Basically, the tale is a manifestation of a culture's unaging desire to name and conceptualize its place in the cosmos. It provides a culture's narrative framework for such things as its vision of itself and its homeland or for expressing its conception of its ancestors and its gods. Usually filled with cryptic and uniquely deployed motifs, personages, and symbols, tales are frequently fully understood only by members of the particular culture to which they belong. Simply, tales are intracultural. Seldom created to address an outside culture, a tale is a medium through which a culture speaks to itself and thus perpetuates its own values and stabilizes its own identity. The old speak to the young through tales.

      The sketch, by contrast, is intercultural, depicting some phenomenon of one culture for the benefit or pleasure of a second culture. Factual and journalistic, in essence the sketch is generally more analytic or descriptive and less narrative or dramatic than the tale. Moreover, the sketch by nature is suggestive, incomplete; the tale is often hyperbolic, overstated.

      The primary mode (arts, the) of the sketch is written; that of the tale, spoken. This difference alone accounts for their strikingly different effects. The sketch writer can have, or pretend to have, his eye on his subject. The tale, recounted at court or campfire—or at some place similarly removed in time from the event—is nearly always a recreation of the past. The tale-teller is an agent of time, bringing together a culture's past and its present. The sketch writer is more an agent of space, bringing an aspect of one culture to the attention of a second.

      It is only a slight oversimplification to suggest that the tale was the only kind of short fiction until the 16th century, when a rising middle class interest in social realism on the one hand and in exotic lands on the other put a premium on sketches of subcultures and foreign regions. In the 19th century certain writers—those one might call the “fathers” of the modern story: Nikolay Gogol, Hawthorne, E.T.A. Hoffmann, Heinrich von Kleist, Prosper Mérimée, Poe—combined elements of the tale with elements of the sketch. Each writer worked in his own way, but the general effect was to mitigate some of the fantasy and stultifying conventionality of the tale and, at the same time, to liberate the sketch from its bondage to strict factuality. The modern short story, then, ranges between the highly imaginative tale and the photographic sketch and in some ways draws on both.

      The short stories of Ernest Hemingway (Hemingway, Ernest), for example, may often gain their force from an exploitation of traditional mythic symbols (water, fish, groin wounds), but they are more closely related to the sketch than to the tale. Indeed, Hemingway was able at times to submit his apparently factual stories as newspaper copy. In contrast, the stories of Hemingway's contemporary William Faulkner (Faulkner, William) more closely resemble the tale. Faulkner seldom seems to understate, and his stories carry a heavy flavour of the past. Both his language and his subject matter are rich in traditional material. A Southerner might well suspect that only a reader steeped in sympathetic knowledge of the traditional South could fully understand Faulkner. Faulkner may seem, at times, to be a Southerner speaking to and for Southerners. But, as, by virtue of their imaginative and symbolic qualities, Hemingway's narratives are more than journalistic sketches, so, by virtue of their explorative and analytic qualities, Faulkner's narratives are more than Southern tales.

      Whether or not one sees the modern short story as a fusion of sketch and tale, it is hardly disputable that today the short story is a distinct and autonomous, though still developing, genre.

History

Origins

      The evolution of the short story first began before man could write. To aid himself in constructing and memorizing tales, the early storyteller often relied on stock phrases, fixed rhythms, and rhyme (poetry). Consequently, many of the oldest narratives in the world, such as the famous Babylonian tale the Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BC), are in verse. Indeed, most major stories from the ancient Middle East (Middle East, ancient) were in verse: “The War of the Gods,” “The Story of Adapa” (both Babylonian), “The Heavenly Bow,” and “The King Who Forgot” (both Canaanite). These tales were inscribed in cuneiform on clay during the 2nd millennium BC.

From Egypt (art and architecture, Egyptian) to India

      The earliest tales extant from Egypt were composed on papyrus at a comparable date. The ancient Egyptians seem to have written their narratives largely in prose, apparently reserving verse for their religious hymns and working songs. One of the earliest surviving Egyptian tales, “The Shipwrecked Sailor” (c. 2000 BC), is clearly intended to be a consoling and inspiring story to reassure its aristocratic audience that apparent misfortune can in the end become good fortune. Also recorded during the 12th dynasty were the success story of the exile Sinuhe and the moralizing tale (fable) called “King Cheops [Khufu] and the Magicians.” The provocative and profusely detailed story “The Tale of Two Brothers” (or “Anpu and Bata”) was written down during the New Kingdom, probably around 1250 BC. Of all the early Egyptian tales, most of which are baldly didactic, this story is perhaps the richest in folk motifs and the most intricate in plot.

      The earliest tales from India (Indian literature) are not as old as those from Egypt and the Middle East. The Brāhmaṇas (Brāhmaṇa) (c. 700 BC) function mostly as theological appendixes to the Four Vedas, but a few are composed as short, instructional parables. Perhaps more interesting as stories are the later tales in the Pāli language, The Jātaka (Jātaka). Although these tales have a religious frame that attempts to recast them as Buddhist ethical teachings, their actual concern is generally with secular behaviour and practical wisdom. Another, nearly contemporaneous collection of Indian tales, The Pañca-tantra (Panchatantra) (c. AD 500), has been one of the world's most popular books. This anthology of amusing and moralistic animal tales, akin to those of “Aesop” in Greece, was translated into Middle Persian in the 6th century; into Arabic in the 8th century; and into Hebrew, Greek, and Latin soon thereafter. Sir Thomas North's English translation appeared in 1570. Another noteworthy collection is Kathā–saritsāqara (“Ocean of Rivers of Stories), a series of tales assembled and recounted in narrative verse in the 11th century by the Sanskrit writer Samadeva. Most of these tales come from much older material, and they vary from the fantastic story of a transformed swan to a more probable tale of a loyal but misunderstood servant.

      During the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th centuries BC, the Hebrews (Hebrew literature) first wrote down some of their rather sophisticated narratives, which are now a part of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha. The book of Tobit displays an unprecedented sense of ironic humour; Judith creates an unrelenting and suspenseful tension as it builds to its bloody climax; the story of Susanna, the most compact and least fantastic in the Apocrypha, develops a three-sided conflict involving the innocent beauty of Susanna, the lechery of the elders, and the triumphant wisdom of Daniel. The Old Testament books of Ruth, Esther, and Jonah hardly need mentioning: they may well be the most famous stories in the world.

      Nearly all of the ancient tales, whether from Israel, India, Egypt, or the Middle East, were fundamentally didactic. Some of these ancient stories preached by presenting an ideal for readers to imitate. Others tagged with a “moral” were more direct. Most stories, however, preached by illustrating the success and joy that was available to the “good” man and by conveying a sense of the terror and misery that was in store for the wayward.

The Greeks

      The early Greeks contributed greatly to the scope and art of short fiction. As in India, the moralizing animal fable was a common form; many of these tales were collected as “Aesop's fables” in the 6th century BC. Brief mythological (myth) stories of the gods' adventures in love and war were also popular in the pre-Attic age. Apollodorus of Athens compiled a handbook of epitomes, or abstracts, of these tales around the 2nd century BC, but the tales themselves are no longer extant in their original form. They appear, though somewhat transformed, in the longer poetical works of Hesiod, Homer, and the tragedians. Short tales found their way into long prose forms as well, as in Hellanicus' Persika (5th century BC, extant only in fragments).

       Herodotus, the “father of history,” saw himself as a maker and reciter of logoi (things for telling, tales). His long History is interspersed with such fictionalized digressions as the stories of Polycrates and his emerald ring, of Candaules' attractive wife, and of Rhampsinitus' stolen treasure. Xenophon's philosophical history, the Cyropaedia (4th century BC), contains the famous story of the soldier Abradates and his lovely and loyal wife Panthea, perhaps the first Western love story. The Cyropaedia also contains other narrative interpolations: the story of Pheraules, who freely gave away his wealth; the tale of Gobryas' murdered son; and various anecdotes describing the life of the Persian soldier.

      Moreover, the Greeks are usually credited with originating the romance, a long form of prose fiction with stylized plots of love, catastrophe, and reunion. The early Greek romances frequently took shape as a series of short tales. The Love Romances of Parthenius of Nicaea, who wrote during the reign of Augustus Caesar, is a collection of 36 prose stories of unhappy lovers. The Milesian Tales (no longer extant) was an extremely popular collection of erotic and ribald stories composed by Aristides of Miletus in the 2nd century BC and translated almost immediately into Latin. As the variety of these short narratives suggests, the Greeks were less insistent than earlier cultures that short fiction be predominantly didactic.

      By comparison the contribution of the Romans (Latin literature) to short narrative was small. Ovid's long poem, Metamorphoses, is basically a reshaping of over 100 short, popular tales into a thematic pattern. The other major fictional narratives to come out of Rome are novel-length works by Petronius (Petronius Arbiter, Gaius) (Satyricon, 1st century AD) and Apuleius (Apuleius, Lucius) (The Golden Ass, 2nd century AD). Like Ovid these men used potential short-story material as episodes within a larger whole. The Roman love of rhetoric, it seems, encouraged the development of longer and more comprehensive forms of expression. Regardless, the trend away from didacticism inaugurated by the Greeks was not reversed.

Middle Ages, Renaissance, and after

Proliferation of forms

      The Middle Ages was a time of the proliferation, though not necessarily the refinement, of short narratives. The short tale became an important means of diversion and amusement. From the Dark Ages to the Renaissance, various cultures adopted short fiction for their own purposes. Even the aggressive, grim spirit of the invading Germanic (Germanic religion and mythology) barbarians was amenable to expression in short prose. The myths and sagas extant in Scandinavia and Iceland indicate the kinds of bleak and violent tales the invaders took with them into southern Europe.

      In contrast, the romantic imagination and high spirits of the Celts (Celtic literature) remained manifest in their tales. Wherever they appeared—in Ireland, Wales, or Brittany—stories steeped in magic and splendour also appeared. This spirit, easily recognized in such Irish (Irish literature) mythological tales as Longes mac n-Uislenn (probably 9th-century), infused the chivalric romances that developed somewhat later on the Continent. The romances usually addressed one of three “Matters”: the “Matter of Britain” (stories of King Arthur and his knights), the “Matter of France” (the Charlemagne cycle), or the “Matter of Rome” (stories out of antiquity, such as “Pyramus and Thisbe,” “Paris and Helen”). Many, but not all, of the romances are too long to be considered short stories. Two of the most influential contributors of short material to the “Matter of Britain” in the 12th century were Chrétien de Troyes and Marie De France. The latter was gifted as a creator of the short narrative poems known as the Breton lays (Breton lay). Only occasionally did a popular short romance like Aucassin and Nicolette (13th century) fail to address any of the three Matters.

      Also widely respected was the exemplum, a short didactic tale usually intended to dramatize or otherwise inspire model behaviour. Of all the exempla, the best known in the 11th and 12th centuries were the lives of the saints, some 200 of which are extant. The Gesta Romanorum (“Deeds of the Romans”) offered skeletal plots of exempla that preachers could expand into moralistic stories for use in their sermons.

      Among the common people of the late Middle Ages there appeared a literary movement counter to that of the romance and exemplum. Displaying a preference for common sense, secular humour, and sensuality, this movement accounted in a large way for the practical-minded animals in beast fables, the coarse and “merry” jestbooks, and the ribald fabliaux (fabliau). All were important as short narratives, but perhaps the most intriguing of the three are the fabliaux. First appearing around the middle of the 12th century, fabliaux remained popular for 200 years, attracting the attention of Boccaccio and Chaucer. Some 160 fabliaux are extant, all in verse.

      Often, the medieval storyteller—regardless of the kind of tale he preferred—relied on a framing circumstance that made possible the juxtaposition of several stories, each of them relatively autonomous. Since there was little emphasis on organic unity, most storytellers preferred a flexible format, one that allowed tales to be added or removed at random with little change in effect. Such a format is found in The Seven Sages of Rome, a collection of stories so popular that nearly every European country had its own translation. The framing circumstance in The Seven Sages involves a prince condemned to death; his advocates (the seven sages) relate a new story each day, thereby delaying the execution until his innocence is made known. This technique is clearly similar to that of The Arabian Nights (Thousand and One Nights, The), another collection to come out of the Middle Ages. The majority of the stories in The Arabian Nights are framed by the story of Scheherazade in “A Thousand and One Nights.” Records indicate that the basis of this framing story was a medieval Persian collection, Hezar Efsan (“Thousand Romances,” no longer extant). In both the Persian and Arabian versions of the frame, the clever Scheherazade avoids death by telling her king-husband a thousand stories. Though the framing device is identical in both versions, the original Persian stories within the frame were replaced or drastically altered as the collection was adapted by the Arabs during the Muslim Manlūk period (AD 1250–1517).

Refinement

      Short narrative received its most refined treatment in the Middle Ages from Chaucer (Chaucer, Geoffrey) and Boccaccio. Chaucer's versatility reflects the versatility of the age. In “The Miller's Tale” he artistically combines two fabliaux; in “The Nun's Priest's Tale” he draws upon material common to beast fables; in “The Pardoner's Tale” he creates a brilliantly revealing sermon, complete with a narrative exemplum. This short list hardly exhausts the catalogue of forms Chaucer experimented with. By relating tale to teller and by exploiting relationships among the various tellers, Chaucer endowed The Canterbury Tales with a unique, dramatic vitality.

      Boccaccio (Boccaccio, Giovanni)'s genius, geared more toward narrative than drama, is of a different sort. Where Chaucer reveals a character through actions and assertions, Boccaccio seems more interested in stories as pieces of action. With Boccaccio, the characters telling the stories, and usually the characters within, are of subordinate interest. Like Chaucer, Boccaccio frames his well-wrought tales in a metaphoric context. The trip to the shrine at Canterbury provides a meaningful backdrop against which Chaucer juxtaposes his earthy and pious characters. The frame of the Decameron (from the Greek deka, 10, and hēmera, day) has relevance as well: during the height of the Black Plague in Florence, Italy (Italian literature), 10 people meet and agree to amuse and divert each other by telling 10 stories each. Behind every story, in effect, is the inescapable presence of the Black Death. The Decameron is fashioned out of a variety of sources, including fabliaux, exempla, and short romances.

Spreading popularity

      Immediately popular, the Decameron produced imitations nearly everywhere. In Italy alone, there appeared at least 50 writers of novelle (novella) (as short narratives were called) after Boccaccio.

      Learning from the success and artistry of Boccaccio and, to a lesser degree, his contemporary Franco Sacchetti (Sacchetti, Franco), Italian writers for three centuries kept the Western world supplied with short narratives. Sacchetti was no mere imitator of Boccaccio. More of a frank and unadorned realist, he wrote—or planned to write—300 stories (200 of the Trecentonovelle [“300 Short Stories”] are extant) dealing in a rather anecdotal way with ordinary Florentine life. Two other well-known narrative writers of the 14th century, Giovanni Fiorentino and Giovanni Sercambi, freely acknowledged their imitation of Boccaccio. In the 15th century Masuccio Salernitano's collection of 50 stories, Il novellino (1475), attracted much attention. Though verbosity often substitutes for eloquence in Masuccio's stories, they are witty and lively tales of lovers and clerics.

      With Masuccio the popularity of short stories was just beginning to spread. Almost every Italian in the 16th century, it has been suggested, tried his hand at novelle. Matteo Bandello (Bandello, Matteo), the most influential and prolific writer, attempted nearly everything from brief histories and anecdotes to short romances, but he was most interested in tales of deception. Various other kinds of stories appeared. Agnolo Firenzuolo's popular Ragionamenti diamore (“The Reasoning of Love”) is characterized by a graceful style unique in tales of ribaldry; Anton Francesco Doni included several tales of surprise and irony in his miscellany, I marmi (“The Marbles”); and Gianfrancesco Straparola (Straparola, Gianfrancesco) experimented with common folktales and with dialects in his collection, Le piacevoli notti (“The Pleasant Nights”). In the early 17th century, Giambattista Basile (Basile, Giambattista) attempted to infuse stock situations (often of the fairy-tale type, such as “Puss and Boots”) with realistic details. The result was often remarkable—a tale of hags or princes with very real motives and feelings. Perhaps it is the amusing and diverting nature of Basile's collection of 50 stories that has reminded readers of Boccaccio. Or, it may be his use of a frame similar to that in the Decameron. Whatever the reason, Basile's Cunto de li cunti (1634; The Story of Stories) is traditionally linked with Boccaccio and referred to as The Pentamerone (“The Five Days”). Basile's similarities to Boccaccio suggest that in the 300 years between them the short story may have gained repute and circulation, but its basic shape and effect hardly changed.

      This pattern was repeated in France (French literature), though the impetus provided by Boccaccio was not felt until the 15th century. A collection of 100 racy anecdotes, Les Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles, “The Hundred New Short Stories” (c. 1460), outwardly resembles the Decameron. Margaret of Angoulême's Heptaméron (1558–59; “The Seven Days”), an unfinished collection of 72 amorous tales, admits a similar indebtedness.

      In the early 17th century Béroalde de Verville placed his own Rabelaisian tales within a banquet frame in a collection called Le Moyen de parvenir, “The Way of Succeeding” (c. 1610). Showing great narrative skill, Béroalde's stories are still very much in the tradition of Boccaccio; as a collection of framed stories, their main intent is to amuse and divert the reader.

      As the most influential nation in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries, Spain (Spanish literature) contributed to the proliferation of short prose fiction. Especially noteworthy are: Don Juan Manuel (Juan Manuel, Don)'s collection of lively exempla Libro de los enxiemplos del conde Lucanor et de Patronio (1328–35), which antedates the Decameron; the anonymous story “The Abencerraje,” which was interpolated into a pastoral novel of 1559; and, most importantly, Miguel de Cervantes (Cervantes, Miguel de)' experimental Novelas ejemplares (1613; “Exemplary Novels”). Cervantes' short fictions vary in style and seriousness, but their single concern is clear: to explore the nature of man's secular existence. This focus was somewhat new for short fiction, heretofore either didactic or escapist.

      Despite the presence of these and other popular collections, short narrative in Spain was eventually overshadowed by a new form that began to emerge in the 16th century—the novel. Like the earlier Romans, the Spanish writers of the early Renaissance often incorporated short story material as episodes in a larger whole.

Decline of short fiction

      The 17th and 18th centuries mark the temporary decline of short fiction. The causes of this phenomenon are many: the emergence of the novel; the failure of the Boccaccio tradition to produce in three centuries much more than variations or imitations of older, well-worn material; and a renaissant fascination with drama and poetry, the superior forms of classical antiquity. Another cause for the disappearance of major works of short fiction is suggested by the growing preference for journalistic (journalism) sketches. The increasing awareness of other lands and the growing interest in social conditions (accommodated by a publication boom) produced a plethora of descriptive and biographical sketches. Although these journalistic elements later were incorporated in the fictional short story, for the time being fact held sway over the imagination. Travel books, criminal biographies, social description, sermons, and essays occupied the market. Only occasionally did a serious story find its way into print, and then it was usually a production of an established writer like Voltaire or Addison.

      Perhaps the decline is clearest in England, where the short story had its least secure foothold. It took little to obscure the faint tradition established in the 16th and 17th centuries by the popular jestbooks, by the Palace of Pleasure (an anthology of stories, mostly European), and by the few rough stories written by Englishmen (e.g., Barnabe Rich's Farewell to Military Profession, 1581).

      During the Middle Ages short fiction had become primarily an amusing and diverting medium. The Renaissance and Enlightenment, however, made different demands of the form. The awakening concern with secular issues called for a new attention to actual conditions. Simply, the diverting stories were no longer relevant or viable. At first only the journalists and pamphleteers responded to the new demand. Short fiction disappeared, in effect, because it did not respond. When it did shake off its escapist trappings in the 19th century, it reappeared as the “modern short story.” This was a new stage in the evolution of short fiction, one in which the short form undertook a new seriousness and gained a new vitality and respect.

Emergence of the modern short story

The 19th century

      The modern short story emerged almost simultaneously in Germany (German literature), the United States, France, and Russia. In Germany there had been relatively little difference between the stories of the late 18th century and those in the older tradition of Boccaccio. In 1795 Goethe (Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von) contributed a set of stories to Schiller's journal, Die Horen, that were obviously created with the Decameron in mind. Significantly, Goethe did not call them “short stories” (Novellen) although the term was available to him. Rather, he thought of them as “entertainments” for German travellers (Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten). Friedrich Schlegel (Schlegel, Friedrich von)'s early discussion of the short narrative form, appearing soon after Goethe's “entertainments,” also focussed on Boccaccio (Nachrichten von den poetischen Werken des G. Boccaccio, 1801).

      But a new type of short fiction was near at hand—a type that accepted some of the realistic properties of popular journalism. In 1827, 32 years after publishing his own “entertainments,” Goethe commented on the difference between the newly emergent story and the older kind. “What is a short story,” he asked, “but an event which, though unheard of, has occurred? Many a work which passes in Germany under the title 'short story' is not a short story at all, but merely a tale or what else you would like to call it.” Two influential critics, Christoph Wieland (Wieland, Christoph Martin) and Friedrich Schleiermacher (Schleiermacher, Friedrich), also argued that a short story properly concerned itself with events that actually happened or could happen. A short story, for them, had to be realistic.

      Perhaps sensitive to this qualification, Heinrich von Kleist (Kleist, Heinrich von) and E.T.A. Hoffmann (Hoffmann, E.T.A.) called their short works on fabulous themes “tales” (Erzählungen). Somewhat like Poe, Kleist created an expression of human problems, partly metaphysical and partly psychological, by dramatizing man's confrontations with a fantastic, chaotic world. Hoffmann's intriguing tales of exotic places and of supernatural phenomena were very likely his most influential. Another important writer, Ludwig Tieck (Tieck, Ludwig), explicitly rejected realism as the definitive element in a short story. As he noted in his preface to the 1829 collection of his works and as he demonstrated in his stories, Tieck envisioned the short story as primarily a matter of intensity and ironic inversion. A story did not have to be realistic in any outward sense, he claimed, so long as the chain of consequences was “entirely in keeping with character and circumstances.” By allowing the writer to pursue an inner, and perhaps bizarre, reality and order, Tieck and the others kept the modern story open to nonjournalistic techniques.

      In the United States (American literature), the short story, as in Germany, evolved in two strains. On the one hand there appeared the realistic story that sought objectively to deal with seemingly real places, events, or persons. The regionalist (Midwestern Regionalism) stories of the second half of the 19th century (including those by G.W. Cable, Bret Harte, Sarah Orne Jewett) are of this kind. On the other hand, there developed the impressionist story, a tale shaped and given meaning by the consciousness and psychological attitudes of the narrator. Predicated upon this element of subjectivity, these stories seem less objective and are less realistic in the outward sense. Of this sort are Poe's tales in which the hallucinations (Impressionism) of a central character or narrator provide the details and facts of the story. Like the narrators in “The Tell-Tale Heart” (1843) and “The Imp of the Perverse” (1845), the narrator of “The Fall of the House of Usher” (1839) so distorts and transforms what he sees that the reader cannot hope to look objectively at the scene. Looking through an intermediary's eyes, the reader can see only the narrator's impressions of the scene.

      Some writers contributed to the development of both types of story. Washington Irving (Irving, Washington) wrote several realistic sketches (The Sketch-Book, 1819–20; The Alhambra, 1832) in which he carefully recorded appearances and actions. Irving also wrote stories in which the details were taken not from ostensible reality but from within a character's mind. Much of the substance of “The Stout Gentleman” (1821), for example, is reshaped and recharged by the narrator's fertile imagination; “Rip Van Winkle” (1819) draws upon the symbolic surreality of Rip's dreams.

      The short prose of Nathaniel Hawthorne (Hawthorne, Nathaniel) illustrates that neither type of modern story, however, has exclusive rights to the use of symbol. On a few occasions, as in “My Kinsman, Major Molineux” (1832), Hawthorne's stories are about symbolic events as they are viewed subjectively by the central character. Hawthorne's greater gift, however, was for creating scenes, persons, and events that strike the reader as being actual historical facts and also as being rich in symbolic import. “Endicott and the Red Cross” (1837) may seem little more than a photographic sketch of a tableau out of history (the 17th-century Puritan leader cuts the red cross of St. George out of the colonial flag, the first act of rebellion against England), but the details are symbols of an underground of conflicting values and ideologies.

The “impressionist” story

      Several American writers, from Poe to James, were interested in the “impressionist” story that focusses on the impressions registered by events on the characters' minds, rather than the objective reality of the events themselves. In Herman Melville (Melville, Herman)'s “Bartleby the Scrivener” (1856) the narrator is a man who unintentionally reveals his own moral weaknesses through his telling of the story of Bartleby. Mark Twain (Twain, Mark)'s tales of animals (“The Celebrated Jumping Frog,” 1865; “The Story of Old Ram,” 1872; “Baker's Blue Jay Yarn,” 1879), all impressionist stories, distort ostensible reality in a way that reflects on the men who are speaking. Ambrose Bierce (Bierce, Ambrose)'s famous “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” (1891) is another example of this type of story in which the reader sees a mind at work—distorting, fabricating, and fantasizing—rather than an objective picture of actuality. In contrast, William Dean Howells (Howells, William Dean) usually sought an objectifying aesthetic distance. Though Howells was as interested in human psychology and behaviour as any of the impressionist writers, he did not want his details filtered through a biassed, and thus distorting, narrator. Impressionism, he felt, gave license for falsifications; in the hands of many writers of his day, it did in fact result in sentimental romanticizing.

      But in other hands the impressionist technique could subtly delineate human responses. Henry James (James, Henry) was such a writer. Throughout his prefaces to the New York edition of his works, the use of an interpreting “central intelligence” is constantly emphasized. “Again and again, on review,” James observes, “the shorter things in especial that I have gathered into [the Edition] have ranged themselves not as my own impersonal account of the affair in hand, but as my account of somebody's impression of it.” This use of a central intelligence, who is the “impersonal author's concrete deputy or delegate” in the story, allows James all the advantages of impressionism and, simultaneously, the freedom and mobility common to stories narrated by a disembodied voice.

Respect for the story

      In at least one way, 19th-century America resembled 16th-century Italy: there was an abundance of second- and third-rate short stories. And, yet, respect for the form grew substantially, and most of the great artists of the century were actively participating in its development. The seriousness with which many writers and readers regarded the short story is perhaps most clearly evident in the amount and kind of critical attention it received. James, Howells, Harte, Twain, Melville, and Hawthorne all discussed it as an art form, usually offering valuable insights, though sometimes shedding more light on their own work than on the art as a whole.

      But the foremost American critic of the short story was Edgar Allan Poe (Poe, Edgar Allan). Himself a creator of influential impressionist techniques, Poe believed that the definitive characteristic of the short story was its unity of effect. “A skillful literary artist has constructed a tale,” Poe wrote in his review of Hawthorne's Twice-Told Tales in 1842.

If wise, he has not fashioned his thoughts to accommodate his incidents; but having conceived, with deliberate care, a certain unique or single effect to be wrought out, he then invents such incidents—he then combines such events as may best aid him in establishing this preconceived effect. If his very initial sentence tend not to the out-bringing of this effect, then he has failed in his first step. In the whole composition there should be no word written of which the tendency, direct or indirect, is not to the one pre-established design.

      Poe's polemic primarily concerns craftsmanship and artistic integrity; it hardly prescribes limits on subject matter or dictates technique. As such, Poe's thesis leaves the story form open to experimentation and to growth while it demands that the form show evidence of artistic diligence and seriousness.

French writers

      The new respect for the short story was also evident in France, as Henry James observed, when in 1844 Prosper “Mérimée (Mérimée, Prosper) with his handful of little stories was appointed to the French Academy.” As illustrated by “Columbia” (1841) or “Carmen” (1845), which gained additional fame as an opera, Mérimée's stories are masterpieces of detached and dry observation, though the subject matter itself is often emotionally charged. Nineteenth-century France produced short stories as various as 19th-century America—although the impressionist tale was generally less common in France. (It is as if, not having an outstanding impressionist storyteller themselves, the French adopted Poe, who was being ignored by the critics in his own country.) The two major French impressionist writers were Charles Nodier (Nodier, Charles), who experimented with symbolic fantasies, and Gérard de Nerval (Nerval, Gérard de), whose collection Les Filles du feu (1854; “Daughters of Fire”) grew out of recollections of his childhood. Artists primarily known for their work in other forms also attempted the short story—novelists like Honoré de Balzac and Gustave Flaubert and poets like Alfred de Vigny and Théophile Gautier.

      One of the most interesting writers of 19th-century France is Alphonse Daudet (Daudet, Alphonse), whose stories reflect the spectrum of interest and techniques of the entire century. His earliest and most popular stories (Lettres de mon moulin, 1866; “Letters from My Mill”) create a romantic, picturesque fantasy; his stories of the Franco-Prussian War (Contes du Lundi, 1873; “Monday's Tales”) are more objectively realistic, and the sociological concern of his last works betrays his increasing interest in naturalistic determinism.

      The greatest French storywriter, by far, is Guy de Maupassant (Maupassant, Guy de), a master of the objective short story. Basically, Maupassant's stories are anecdotes that capture a revealing moment in the lives of middle class citizens. This crucial moment is typically recounted in a well-plotted design, though perhaps in some stories like “Boule de suif” (1880; “Ball of Tallow”) and “The Necklace” (1881) the plot is too contrived, the reversing irony too neat, and the artifice too apparent. In other stories, like “The House of Madame Tellier” (1881), Maupassant's easy and fluid prose captures the innocence and the corruption of human behaviour.

Russian writers

      During the first two decades of the 19th century in Russia, fable writing became a fad. By all accounts the most widely read fabulist was Ivan Krylov (Krylov, Ivan Andreyevich) whose stories borrowed heavily from Aesop, La Fontaine, and various Germanic sources. If Krylov's tales made short prose popular in Russia, the stories of the revered poet Aleksandr Pushkin (Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeyevich) gained serious attention for the form. Somewhat like Mérimée in France (who was one of the first to translate Pushkin, Gogol, and Turgenev into French), Pushkin cultivated a detached, rather classical style for his stories of emotional conflicts (The Queen of Spades, 1834). Also very popular and respected was Mikhail Lermontov's “novel,” A Hero of Our Time (1840), which actually consists of five stories that are more or less related.

      But it is Nikolay Gogol (Gogol, Nikolay) who stands at the headwaters of the Russian short story; Dostoyevsky noted that all Russian short story writers “emerged from Gogol's overcoat,” a punning allusion to the master's best known story. In a manner all his own, Gogol was developing impressionist techniques in Russia simultaneously with Poe in America. Gogol published his Arabesques (1835) five years before Poe collected some of his tales under a similar title. Like those of Poe, Gogol's tales of hallucination, confusing reality and dream, are among his best stories (“Nevsky Prospect” and “Diary of a Madman,” both 1835). The single most influential story in the first half of the 19th century in Russia was undoubtedly Gogol's “Overcoat” (1842). Blending elements of realism (natural details from the characters' daily lives) with elements of fantasy (the central character returns as a ghost), Gogol's story seems to anticipate both the impressionism of Dostoyevsky's “Underground Man” and the realism of Tolstoy's “Ivan Ilich.”

      Ivan Turgenev (Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich) appears, at first glance, antithetical to Gogol. In A Sportsman's Notebook (1852) Turgenev's simple use of language, his calm pace, and his restraint clearly differentiate him from Gogol. But like Gogol, Turgenev was more interested in capturing qualities of people and places than in building elaborate plots. A remaining difference between the two Russians, however, tends to make Turgenev more acceptable to 20th-century readers: Turgenev studiously avoided anything artificial. Though he may have brought into his realistic scenes a tale of a ghost (“Bezhin Meadow,” 1852), he did not attempt to bring in a ghost (as Gogol had done in “The Overcoat”). In effect, Turgenev's allegiance was wholly to detached observation.

      Developing some of the interests of Gogol, Fyodor Dostoyevsky (Dostoyevsky, Fyodor) experimented with the impressionist story. The early story “White Nights” (1848), for example, is a “Tale of Love from the Reminiscence of a Dreamer” as the subtitle states; the title of one of his last stories, “The Dream of the Ridiculous Man” (1877), also echoes Poe and Gogol. Though sharing Dostoyevsky's interest in human motives, Leo Tolstoy (Tolstoy, Leo) used vastly different techniques. He usually sought psychological veracity through a more detached and, presumably, objective narrator (“The Death of Ivan Ilich,” 1886; “The Kreutzer Sonata,” 1891). Perhaps somewhat perplexed by Tolstoy's nonimpressionist means of capturing and delineating psychological impressions, Henry James (James, Henry) pronounced Tolstoy the masterhand of the disconnection of method from matter.

      The Russian master of the objective story was Anton Chekhov (Chekhov, Anton). No other storywriter so consistently as Chekhov turned out first-rate works. Though often compared to Maupassant, Chekhov is much less interested in constructing a well-plotted story; nothing much actually happens in Chekhov's stories, though much is revealed about his characters and the quality of their lives. While Maupassant focusses on event, Chekhov keeps his eye on character. Stories like “The Grasshopper” (1892), “The Darling” (1898), and “In the Ravine” (1900)—to name only three—all reveal Chekhov's perception, his compassion, and his subtle humour and irony. One critic says of Chekhov that he is no moralist—he simply says “you live badly, ladies and gentlemen,” but his smile has the indulgence of a very wise man.

The 20th century

      In the first half of the 20th century the appeal of the short story continued to grow. Literally hundreds of writers—including, as it seems, nearly every major dramatist, poet, and novelist—published thousands of excellent stories. William Faulkner suggested that writers often try their hand at poetry, find it too difficult, go on to the next most demanding form, the short story, fail at that, and only then settle for the novel. In the 20th century Germany, France, Russia, and the U.S. lost what had once appeared to be their exclusive domination of the form. Innovative and commanding writers emerged in countries that had previously exerted little influence on the genre: Sicily, for example, produced Luigi Pirandello; Czechoslovakia, Franz Kafka; Japan, Akutagawa Ryūnosuke; Argentina, Jorge Luis Borges. Literary journals with international circulation, such as Ford Madox Ford's Transatlantic Review, Scribner's Magazine, and Harriet Weaver's Egoist, provided a steady and prime exposure for young writers.

      As the familiarity with it increased, the short story form itself became more varied and complex. The fundamental means of structuring a story underwent a significant change. The overwhelming or unique event that usually informed the 19th-century story fell out of favour with the storywriter of the early 20th century. He grew more interested in subtle actions and unspectacular events. Sherwood Anderson (Anderson, Sherwood), one of the most influential U.S. writers of the early 20th century, observed that the common belief in his day was that stories had to be built around a plot, a notion that, in Anderson's opinion, appeared to poison all storytelling. His own aim was to achieve form, not plot, although form was more elusive and difficult. The record of the short story in the 20th century is dominated by this increased sensitivity to—and experimentation with—form. Although the popular writers of the century (like O. Henry in the U.S. and Paul Morand in France) may have continued to structure stories according to plot, the greater artists turned elsewhere for structure, frequently eliciting the response from cursory readers that “nothing happens in these stories.” Narratives like Ernest Hemingway (Hemingway, Ernest)'s “A Clean Well-Lighted Place” may seem to have no structure at all, so little physical action develops; but stories of this kind are actually structured around a psychological, rather than physical, conflict. In several of Hemingway's stories (as in many by D.H. Lawrence, Katherine Mansfield, and others), physical action and event are unimportant except insofar as the actions reveal the psychological underpinnings of the story. Stories came to be structured, also, in accordance with an underlying archetypal (archetype) model: the specific plot and characters are important insofar as they allude to a traditional plot or figure, or to patterns that have recurred with wide implications in the history of mankind. Katherine Anne Porter (Porter, Katherine Anne)'s “Flowering Judas,” for example, echoes and ironically inverts the traditional Christian legend. Still other stories are formed by means of motif, usually a thematic repetition of an image or detail that represents the dominant idea of the story. “The Dead,” the final story in James Joyce (Joyce, James)'s Dubliners, builds from a casual mention of death and snow early in the story to a culminating paragraph that links them in a profound vision. Seldom, of course, is the specific structure of one story appropriate for a different story. Faulkner, for example, used the traditional pattern of the knightly quest (in an ironic way) for his story “Was,” but for “Barn Burning” he relied on a psychologically organic form to reveal the story of young Sarty Snopes.

      No single form provided the 20th-century writer with the answer to structural problems. As the primary structuring agent, spectacular and suspenseful action was rather universally rejected around midcentury since motion pictures and television could present it much more vividly. As the periodicals that had supplied escapist stories to mass audiences declined, the short story became the favoured form of a smaller but intellectually more demanding readership. The Argentine Borges (Borges, Jorge Luis), for example, attracted an international following with his Ficciones, stories that involved the reader in dazzling displays of erudition and imagination, unlike anything previously encountered in the genre. Similarly, the American Donald Barthelme (Barthelme, Donald)'s composition consisted of bits and pieces of, e.g., television commercials, political speeches, literary allusions, eavesdropped conversations, graphic symbols, dialogue from Hollywood movies—all interspersed with his own original prose in a manner that defied easy comprehension and yet compelled the full attention of the reader. The short story also lent itself to the rhetoric of student protest in the 1960s and was found in a bewildering variety of mixed-media forms in the “underground” press that publicized this life style throughout the world. In his deep concern with such a fundamental matter as form, the 20th-century writer unwittingly affirmed the maturation and popularity of the genre; only a secure and valued (not to mention flexible) genre could withstand and, moreover, encourage such experimentation.

Arlen J. Hansen

Additional Reading

K.P. Kempton examines the genre of the short story, emphasizing theme and meaning, in The Short Story (1947). An excellent analysis of story techniques is offered in Sean O'Faolain, The Short Story (1948). Brander Matthews, The Philosophy of the Short Story (1901, reprinted 1931), is predicated on Edgar Allan Poe's theories. A provocative thesis regarding the nature of stories is presented in Frank O'Connor, The Lonely Voice: A Study of the Short Story (1963). H.S. Summers has collected some of the more important discussions of the form in Discussions of the Short Story (1963). Storytellers and Their Art, ed. by G. Sampson and C. Burkhart (1963), contains comments of various authors on the form. More specialized discussions of the form are contained in F.L. Pattee, The Development of the American Short Story (1923); R.B. West, Short Story in America, 1900–1950 (1952); E.K. Bennett, A History of the German Novelle, 2nd ed. rev. by H.M. Waidson (1961); and S. Trenkner, Greek Novella in the Classical Period (1958). Barbara Lounsberry et al. (eds.), The Tales We Tell: Perspectives on the Short Story (1998), is a wide-ranging collection of scholarly essays. Books on the craft of writing that provide valuable insight into the workings of the short story include Jack M. Bickham, Writing the Short Story: A Hands-On Program (1994); Madison Smartt Bell, Narrative Design (1997); and Rick DeMarinis, The Art & Craft of the Short Story (2000). Tom Bailey (ed.), On Writing Short Stories (2000), includes essays by such writers as Francine Prose and Joyce Carol Oates. Ann Charters (ed.), The Story and Its Writer, 7th ed. (2007), is an anthology of short fiction.

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